The Celtic Religion of Gaul During the Iron Age
Though the religion of the Celtic people existed across the
continent of Europe it was far from being unified during the Iron Age. Like
most ancient religious systems it was based on local cults rather than a
universal doctrine, still, there are similarities that present clear
connections to a single underlying structure. Being that the ancient Celts
neglected to document their rituals and beliefs it is up to other disciplinary
means to bring this religion back to life.
The written material concerning the religion of Gaul is
dominated by ancient Graeco-Roman literature and thereby subject to bias.
Studying additional methods like archaeology, linguistics, insular Celtic
literature, and place-name references can further unveil their beliefs, yet
what is known still remains minimal at best. By compiling these various sources
this paper seeks to offer a brief insight into the Gaulish religion during the
Iron Age, roughly spanning from the ninth century to the end of the first
century B.C. In an effort to understand the religion of these people it seems
best to examine their beliefs, deities, and aspects of worship.
1. Beliefs
Although there is not a recorded origin myth for the ancient
Celts it is Julius Caesar who provided an insight worthy of note—he stated that
the Gauls claimed to be descended from the god of the underworld. This implies
that the Celts worshipped their distant ancestors as deities, being that they
were descended rather than created. Examining insular literature such as The Book
of the Invasions, (Irish, Lebor Gabála Érenn), further confirms that the Celtic
tradition was to consider their gods as their ancestors. This could explain why
many of the Gaulish deities are depicted as humans, typically with animalistic
features, during the Iron Age.
The Gauls entrusted much of their religious beliefs to the
Druids. It is Caesar again who first mentioned them, though it is likely his
source came from a Greek named Poseidonios who lived in the second century B.C.
Caesar noted, “The druids are involved in matters of religion. They manage
public and private sacrifices and interpret religious customs and ceremonies.”
The Druids were involved in all religious affairs, however, they did not
exclusively perform priestly functions. There is literary implication that
other classes partook in religious practices, such as the gutuatri, (speakers
to the gods), and the Vates, whom Pliny said were interpreters of sacrifice. It
is certainly possible that all these distinct groups mentioned by classical
sources could simply be sub-divisions of the Druidic class. Principally
speaking, the Druids were the predominant authority within the Gaulish
ideology/religion.
Classical literature towards the end of the Iron Age indicates
the Celts of Gaul held the belief that the soul was immortal. The Graeco-Roman
writers also made it known that this was the doctrine taught by the Druids in
Gaul. Diodorus Siculus, a Greek writer who lived during the first century B.C,
commented: “We are told, at the funerals of their dead some cast letters upon the
pyre which they have written to their deceased kinsman, as if the dead would be
able to read these letters.” Again, this belief remained persistent in later insular
literature, particularly throughout the recorded Irish myths.
In addition to the belief in an immortal soul, there is
strong evidence that the Celts considered the soul to reside in the head. There
are multiple passages by classical writers, notably Diodorus and Livy, which
illustrate Celtic warriors decapitating heads of their slain enemies so that
they may “retain and control” their power. Once more there is indication in
later Celtic literature reaffirming this concept, once such case being the
Welsh myth Mabinogi. Collections of skulls have been found in rivers considered
sacred to the Celtic people in various locations, presumably as votive
offerings. Their belief of the soul lying in the head could explain why human
skulls were presumably venerated with such a high degree and at times used as
religious offerings.
It seems evident that the Gauls, as well as the Celts at
large, held the belief in life after death. When commenting on the Gaulish
afterlife classical sources often refer to what is called the ‘Otherworld’—the
world of the dead. The rhetoric seems to imply that when death occurred in one
world, birth took place in the other. This makes sense of Caesar stating that
Gallic funerals were “full of pomp and splendor,” because an exchange of souls
between both worlds was being celebrated. It is interesting to note that
insular Celtic literature maintained the existence of the Otherworld. It is
traditionally depicted as a mirror-image of this world, though with pleasing exceptions
like lack of sickness and aging. Iron Age Celtic graves in Gaul contained
stockpiles of worldly goods which were seemingly used in the Otherworld. A
burial site at Vix in westcentral France contained a heap of funerary goods for
a Celtic woman who lived during the early fifth century B.C. In the grave was a
large bronze vessel, gold neck ring, bronze bowls, and many other precious
items which make it tempting to recognize a belief in life after death.
Balance is an essential doctrine of the Celts. Caesar
observes, “For they believe that unless one human life is offered for another
the power and presence of the immortal gods cannot be propitiated.” This theme
of balance is further justified in their belief of an Otherworld, in juxtaposition
to this world. The sun and the moon potentially served as another cosmological example
backing this ideology. It seems that the Celtic people believed in a
mirror-like universe in almost every aspect, which produced divine balance.
2. Deities
Through classical scholars,
place-names references, and Iron Age religious inscriptions it is without doubt
that the Iron Age Celts of Gaul were polytheistic. There are over 300 names of Celtic
deities mentioned throughout the continent alone, the overwhelming majority
being mentioned only once. This probably means that the Celtic pantheon was
filled with local gods and goddesses specific to each tribe. However, it is
also apparent that certain deities were universally worshipped throughout Gaul.
Often times the deities of the
Celtic pantheon were represented accompanied by animals in their religious art.
From inscriptions, it is commonly known that their divinities could also be identified
with places or features—mountains, streams, rivers, lakes, and tribes. From
their Iron Age symbols and images in art, it can be determined that animals
were sacred, but not necessarily deities. This is potential evidence that their
religion had roots in animism, hence the sanctity of nature and semi-zoomorphic
depictions.
The deity which appears to have
been the most renowned in Gaul was the god called Lugus, Lugh in later Irish
myths. Caesar mentioned that the Gauls mostly worshipped the Roman god Mercury,
who was thought to have been Lugus by several contemporary scholars. Caesar described
him as being the inventor of all the arts, he additionally was the director of
paths and journeys. In Irish mythology, he proclaimed himself a smith, warrior,
poet, physician, and a sorcerer, (fundamentally, the perfect guy). He certainly
was seen as being connected with the arts; amid a great feast he played the
harp so eloquently everyone suddenly began to weep. Inscriptions, as well as
monuments dedicated to Lugus during the Iron Age, are more abundant than any
other Celtic deity. Numerous place-names also indicate the importance that this
god once had throughout Gaul: Lyons, Léon, Loudan, and Laon are all cities
which are etymologically connected to this deity.
Another well-known deity of the
Gaulish pantheon was Cernunnos, “the horned one.” He was typically represented
as having deer antlers with a ram-headed serpent at his side, giving him the
title “Lord of the Animals.” Some scholars equate this deity with The Dagda of
Irish mythology, though this remains only a theory. His figure is portrayed on
the Gundestrup Cauldron, dating back to the second century B.C.24 The manner in
which Cernunnos is sitting on the cauldron, similar to that of the Buddha, is
thought to represent how the people of Gaul typically sat during this period.
Ultimately, the zoomorphic association of Cernunnos demonstrates that animals
and nature played a pivotal role in the Gaulish religion, that much is understood.
Epona, whose name means “divine
horse”, was the Gaulish horse goddess. She was seen as both a fertility goddess
as well as a war goddess, depending on the type of invocation. Like Cernunnos,
this goddess was often given zoomorphic characteristics. There are inscriptions
in Latin which date back to the first century B.C referring to animal
sacrifices conducted in her honor. Epona’s influence even reached into the Italian
peninsula at one point. Gaul’s superior cavalry eventually enticed Rome to adopt
Epona into their pantheon.
The whole of Gaul had various
deities that could be identified with each other or performed similar
functions. This is evident in recognizing divinities commonly associated with the
sun. It seems that the people of Gaul linked the sun with the capacity to heal,
this is evident in the names Grannos, Belenos, and Maponos. Grannos, a name
that denotes the sun, was seen as the deity connected with thermal springs in
both Britain and the continent. Belenos, whose name comes to mean “the shining
one”, was a god of health, healing springs, and possibly fire. Both Belenos and
Grannos were often names served as epithets with the Roman Apollo, god of the sun
and healing, meaning the Romans saw direct resemblance between these deities.
Lastly, the god Maponos, whose
name denotes “youth”, was worshipped in Gaul, Britain, and even Dacia. Youth
correlated with strength to the ancient Gauls, indirectly connecting it to
health and thus the sun.
Deities that were commonly
associated with war have shown to be more tribal than universal. Several
examples are found throughout Gaul, including Teutates and Camulos. It was the
Roman poet Lucan who first mentioned Teutates around the first century A.D. The
root wood of the name, teuta, denoted a tribe or people. This is why he was
thought to have been a wargod, or rather, the defender of the ribe/people. His
name was also used with the Roman Mars, god of war, in later epithets.
Another epithet used with Mars
by the Romans was Camulos. This deity was well-known, his name is found in
votive inscriptions and place-names across the sphere of the Celts. In later
Irish mythology, he was thought to have been Cumal, whose name meant “warrior”
or “champion”, hence supporting the likelihood of him being a war-divinity.
The Iron Age deities affiliated
with rivers and springs were female for the most part. Two such river goddesses
celebrated by the Gauls were Sequana and Matrona. The river Seine in northern
France derives its name from the ancient goddess Sequana. Graves and votive
offerings found at the source of the river date back to as early as the sixth
century B.C.35 The river goddess Matrona is thought to have been the ancient
protector of the Marne River in eastern France. Caesar, in his campaigns
against the Gauls during the first century B.C, even refered to this river as
being called the Matrona. It is indicative from images found depicting these
goddesses that they were connected to fertility, probably because these rivers
helped to ensure survival for the people of Gaul.
Deities related to fertility
were also predominantly female and in many instances worshipped in triune form.
Gaulish fertility goddesses known as the Matres, meaning “Divine Mothers”, were
associated with the Earth. They were seen as protectors of women, houses, regions,
or anything else in general. Images of the Matres were frequently depicted as a
triad, carrying symbols of fertility such as flowers or an infant. They appear later in recorded insular mythology
in altered forms, including the Three Fairies and the Three White Ladies. The number
three was an undeniably sacred number to the Celts all over Europe.
There are, of course, many other
notable deities recognized in Gaul which do not fit into these groupings.
Ogmios, later Ogma in Ireland, may have been connected to speech and/or language
during the Iron Age. Sucellos, whose name likely denotes “he who strikes with power”,
was a deity often depicted with a hammer in his hand. Taranis, meaning
“thunderer”, was equated with the Roman Jupiter and therefore a Celtic god of
the sky/thunder. Finally, a goddess found in Gaul who was equated with Roman
Minerva was Belisama, who was at times syndicated with healing springs.
3. Aspects of Worship
—Places of Worship
The availability of classical
sources and archaeology suggest that bodies of water, groves, and temples
served as religious sanctuaries for the Iron Age Celts of Gaul. Bodies of water
typically included lakes, wells, springs, and rivers, while groves presumably
entailed tall trees.
Classical sources hardly admitted
that the Celts were capable of constructing temples, yet recent excavations in France prove they
were not only capable but quite proficient. Lakes, wells, springs, and rivers
were believed by the Celts to have healing powers, hence why they became sites
of worship. Strabo’s comments regarding extensive treasures found in sacred
lakes of the Celts are substantiated by archaeology. Excavations have uncovered
masses of votive material which the Gauls placed in these bodies of water as
sacrifice. One example involves Lake Neuchâtel, where over 3,000 metal objects
have been uncovered dating between the third and first centuries. Another
example is the source of the Seine River in eastern France, where the goddess
Sequana was given an abundance of offerings during the latter half of the Iron
Age. These votive offerings found at various bodies of water indicate that rituals were performed by a
religious official, perhaps even a Druid.
Pliny, Lucan, and Tacitus all made
reference to oak-groves being places of worship for the Celts. The Gaulish
place-name Nemeton denoted the site of a sacred grove, as is evident in words
like Drunemeton (Oak Grove). Lucan described the groves of Gaul as possessing
tree trunks which were carved to form the images of their gods, which meant
that groves were potentially occupied by certain deities. Caesar noted during
his conquest of Gaul, “At a certain time of the year they (the druids) sit in
judgment in a sacred spot in the territory of the Carnutes, in an area right in
the middle of Gaul.” There are theories that this religious hub of Gaul may have
been located in a sacred grove, though it remains a supposition.
Pre-Roman Celtic temples were
discovered to exist in Gaul during the latter half of the 20th century. Two
such sites, Gournay-sur-Aronde and Ribemont-sur-Ancre, date back to the 3rd
century B.C. Both contained inner sanctuaries as well as scores of war trophies
like helmets, shields, spears, and even human skulls. The two sites
additionally presented evidence of ritualistic animal sacrifice. Presumably,
these sacrifices were offerings for the tribal god of war, being that the
shrines were within an Iron Age fort (oppidum). Caesar’s observation regarding
the Gallic practice of pledging all spoils of battle to the war-god in one
location attests to this thinking. Other Gallic temples are found in Mirebeau
and Acy-Romace, further confirming that the Celts worshipped in enclosed
sanctuaries during this period.
—Religious Ceremonies
Caesar made it known that Druids
were given authority over the religious ceremonies for the people of Gaul. Pliny’s
comment concerning a ceremony conducted
in Gaul supports this: “ The Druids - that is what they call their magicians -
hold nothing more sacred than mistletoe and a tree on which it is growing,
provided it is Valonia Oak….Mistletoe is rare and when found, it is gathered
with great ceremony, and particularly on the sixth day of the moon….Hailing the
moon in a native word that means “healing all things”, they prepare a ritual
sacrifice and banquet beneath a tree and bring up two white bulls, whose horns
are bound for the first time on this occasion. A priest arrayed in white
vestments climbs the tree and with a golden
sickle cuts down the mistletoe, which is caught in a white cloak.” Here Pliny exhibited the importance
of the lunar cycle to the Gauls. Caesar, too, touched on this aspect, saying
the night came first and was followed by the day rather than the reverse.
The importance of religious
ceremonies and the lunar cycle was also found in the Coligny Calendar, found in
eastern France. Though dated towards the end of the Iron Age, astronomers have
calculated that the calendar must have originally been computed around 1100
B.C. The Gaulish inscription on the bronze tablet covered a duration of five
lunar years, which included cosmological elements as well as periods
appropriate for certain rituals and events. These religious ceremonies had to
be accurate so that they may appease the gods, since matters like the harvest
likely depended on it. This explains the precision of the lunar calculations
found throughout the calendar.
The Coligny Calendar additionally
refers to bi-annual ceremonies that marked the end of summer and the end of
winter. “Samon” is inscribed on the tablet to mean the end of summer and effectively
the beginning of the year. There is strong evidence that this is the same
seasonal festival as the Irish “Samhain”, indicating it may have been
celebrated throughout the Celtic world. Both ceremonies were held at the start
of November and show signs of being interconnected with the Otherworld. The end
of winter was given the name “Giamon”, and presumably a ceremony heralding the
onset of spring was administered for this occasion. The Gaulish Calendar also
indicates a festival occurring at the beginning of August, potentially being
associated with the harvest. During this period the Council of the Gauls were said to congregate at a certain
location. The Roman Emperor Augustus relocated this site to Lyons in 12 B.C,
then proceeded to declared himself as the god Lugus. This attempt by Augustus to
unify Gaul and Rome signified that the August festival was traditionally
presided over by Lugus during the Iron Age. This aggregate celebration was
later sustained in Ireland and was also coupled with the god Lugh.
—Offerings
Caesar understood that the Gallic
people were well-versed in religious practice. One practice they occasionally
carried out was the dedication of offerings to the gods, essentially the sacrifice
of wealth. A Gaulish torc found in northeastern France bears an inscription
stating it was a gift to the gods. Another privately dedicated offering found
in western Gaul comprised a gold torc alongside more than 500 Celtic coins.
Individual acts of worship vindicate that the Gauls likely were religious
people, as Caesar insinuated.
The Gauls typically dedicated their
spoils from war as offerings to the gods. Caesar remarks, “When they have
decided to engage in battle it is to Mars that they will dedicate most of what
they may take in the fight.” This statement is supported by the pre-Roman sanctuaries
discussed earlier, which housed the scores of war and gifts committed to
divinities. Additionally, part of the war trophies found at Gournay were human
skulls, which were probably nailed to the entry gate. Skulls have been found
belonging to other Gaulish sanctuaries, a few being Roquepartuse, Nages, and
Entremont. This does not necessarily stipulate that they were “headhunters”, as
classical sources sometimes postulated. More-likely they decapitated the head
from the body after death then put it to use as a votive offering.
The deposition of material goods in
bodies of water was probably the most common form of offering to the ancient
Gauls. Lakes, rivers, wells, and springs throughout Gaul contain a plethora of
offerings dating to the Iron Age. These votive offerings typically comprised of
carved wood, but plaques of metal are also found at times. The Gauls held the
belief that water had curative powers. Therefore, it seems reasonable to
conclude these offerings were given in the hopes that a physical or emotional
sickness may be cured.
—Sacrifices
The religion of pre-Roman Gaul
irrefutably included sacrifice in its tenets. Animal sacrifice was repeatedly
practiced all over religious sites of Gaul, as is attested by classical literature
as well as archaeological finds. Human sacrifice is a different story, however.
Classical authors, notably Caesar and Strabo, directly painted the Celts as
practitioners of human sacrifice, yet archaeology is less resolute in endorsing
this viewpoint. There is an ongoing debate between scholars whether human
religious sacrifice persisted in Gaul. At the heart of the dialogue are bodies
recovered from bogs in northern Europe during the Iron Age, or rather the
interpretation of these bodies.
Animal sacrifice was a familiar
occurrence all over Gaul during the Iron Age. Caesar referenced this, saying
they would vow to sacrifice animals captured during war-time. As previously
discussed, animal remains were found in ditches at the Celtic temple in
Gournay, France, which contained slash marks from metal weaponry. Animals
commonly sacrificed included cows, sheep, pigs, horses, dogs, and
oxen—virtually all domesticated species. These ceremonial sacrifices look to be
ritual rather than habitual, occurring primarily during times involving
trouble.
Classical authors tended to
associate the practice of human sacrifice with the identity of the Gauls, (and
the Celts in general). Caesar and Strabo, both likely using Poseidonios as
their source, wrote that immolation was a form of sacrifice for both animals
and humans in Gaul. Lucan, too, described the Gauls lighting humans on fire to
please the god Taranis. However, if this practice of human sacrifice did exist
in Gaul, it is likely it died out by the end of the Iron Age. Pomponius Mela, a
Roman Geographer of the 1st century A.D, stated that this tradition had long
ended before his time. Moreover, there was no mention of human sacrifice in the
later Celtic literature of Ireland.
Bailey Pope, full article here
