The Humanised Gods Of Celtic Religion
One of the most striking facts connected with the Celtic
religion is the large number of names of deities which it includes. These names
are known to us almost entirely from inscriptions, for the most part votive
tablets, in ac-knowledgment of some benefit, usually that of health, conferred
by the god on man. In Britain these votive tablets are chiefly found in the
neighborhood of the Roman walls and camps, but we cannot be always certain that
the deities mentioned are indigenous.
In Gaul, however, we are on surer ground in associating
certain deities with certain districts, inasmuch as the evidence of place names
is often a guide. These inscriptions are very unevenly distributed over Gaulish
territory, the Western and the North-Western districts being very sparsely
represented.
In the present brief sketch it is impossible to enter into a
full discussion of the relations of the names found on inscriptions to
particular localities, and the light thus thrown on Celtic religion; but it may
be here stated that investigation tends to confirm the local character of most
of the deities which the inscriptions name.
Out of these deities, some, it is true, in the process of evolution, gained a wider field of worshippers, while others, like Lugus, may even have been at one time more widely worshipped than they came to be in later times. Occasionally a name like Lugus (Irish Lug), Segomo (Irish, in the genitive, Segamonas), Camulos, whence Camulodiinum (Colchester), Belenos (Welsh Belyn), Maponos (Welsh Mahon), Litavis (Welsh Llydaw), by its existence in Britain as well as in Gaul, suggests that it was either one of the ancient deities of the Aryan Celts, or one whose worship came to extend over a larger area than its fellows.
Apart from a few exceptional considerations of this kind,
however, the local character of the deities is most marked.
A very considerable number are the deities of springs and
rivers. In Noricum, for example, we have Adsalluta, a goddess associated with Savus
(the river Save). In Britain 'the goddess' Deva (the Dee), and Belisama (either
the Ribble or the Mersey), a name meaning 'the most warlike goddess,' are of
this type. We have again Axona the goddess of the river Aisne, Sequana, the
goddess of the Seine, Ritona of the river Rieu, numerous nymphs and many other
deities of fountains. Doubtless many other names of local deities are of this
kind.
Aerial phenomena appear to have left very few clear traces on the names of Celtic deities. Vintios, a god identified with Mars, was probably a god of the wind, Taranus, a god of thunder, Leucetios, a god of lightning, Sulis (of Bath) a sun-goddess, but beyond these there are few, if any, reflections of the phenomena of the heavens.
Of the gods named on inscriptions nearly all are identified with Mercury, Mars, or Apollo. The gods who came to be regarded as culture-deities appear from their names to be of various origins: some are humanized totems, others are in origin deities of vegetation or local natural phenomena. As already indicated, it is clear that the growth of commercial and civilized life in certain districts had brought into prominence deities identified with Mercury and Minerva as the patrons of civilization. Military men, especially in Britain, appear to have favored deities like Belatucadros (the brilliant in war), identified with Mars. About fourteen inscriptions mentioning him have 38 been found in the North of England and the South of Scotland.
The goddess Brigantia (the patron-deity of the Brigantes),
too, is mentioned on four inscriptions: Cocidius, identified with Mars, is
mentioned on thirteen: while another popular god appears to have been Silvanus.
Among the most noticeable names of the Celtic gods identified with Mercury are
Adsmerius or Atesmerius, Dumiatis (the god of the Buy de Dome), lovantucarus
(the lover of youth), Teutates (the god of the people), Caletos (the hard), and
Moccus (the boar).
Several deities are identified with Mars, and of these some
of the most noticeable names are Albiorix (world-king), Caturix (battle-king),
Dunatis (the god of the fort), Belatucadrus (the brilliant in war), Leucetius
(the god of lightning), Mullo (the mule), Ollovidius (the all-knowing) Vintius
(the wind-god), and Vitucadrus (the brilliant in energy). The large number of
names identified with Mars reflects the prominent place at one time given to
war in the ideas that affected the growth of the region of the Celtic tribes.
Of the gods identified with Hercules, the most interesting
name is Ogmios (the god of the furrow) given by Lucian, but not found on any
inscription. The following gods too, among others, are identified with Jupiter:
Aramo (the gentle), Ambisagrus (the persistent), Bussumarus (the large-lipped),
Taranus (the thunderer), Uxellimus (the highest). It would seem from this that
in historic times at any rate Jupiter did not play a large part in Celtic
religious ideas.
There remains another striking feature of Celtic religion which has not yet been mentioned, namely the identification of several deities with Apollo. These deities are essentially the presiding deities of certain healing-springs and health-resorts, and the growth of their worship into popularity is a further striking index to the development of religion side by side with certain aspects of civilization. One of the names of a Celtic Apollo is Borvo (whence Bourbon), the deity of certain hot springs. This name is Indo-European, and was given to the local fountain-god by the Celtic-speaking invaders of Gaul: it simply means 'the Boiler.' Other forms of the name are also found, as Bormo and Bormanus.
At Aqua Granni (Aix-la-Chapelle) and elsewhere the name
identified with Apollo is Grannos. We find also Mogons, and Mogounus, the
patron deity of Moguntiacum (Mainz), and, once or twice, Maponos (the great
youth).
The essential feature of the Apollo worship was its
association in Gallo-Roman civilization with the idea of healing, an idea
which, through the revival of the worship of Aesculapius, affected religious
views very strongly in other quarters of the empire. It was in this conception
of the gods as the guides of civilization and the restorers of health, that
Celtic religion, in some districts at any rate, shows itself emerging into a
measure of light after a long and toilsome progress from the darkness of
prehistoric ideas. What Caesar says of the practice of the Gauls of beginning
the year with the night rather than with the day, and their ancient belief that
they were sprung from Dis, the god of the lower world, is thus typified in their
religious history.
In dealing with the deities of the Celtic world we must not,
however, forget the goddesses, though their history presents several problems
of great difficulty. Of these goddesses some are known to us by groups —
Proximae (the kins-women), Dervonnae (the oak-spirits), Niskai (the
water-sprites), Mairae, Matronae, Matres or Matrae (the mothers), Quadriviae
(the goddesses of cross roads). The Matres, Matrae, and Matrontae are often
qualified by some local name. Deities of this type appear to have been popular
in Britain, in the neighborhood of Cologne and in Provence.
It is an interesting parallel to the existence of these
grouped goddesses, when we find that in some parts of Wales 'Y Mamau' (the
mothers) is the name for the fairies. These grouped goddesses take us back to
one of the most interesting stages in the early Celtic religion, when the
earth-spirits or the corn-spirits had not yet been completely individualized.
Of the individualized goddesses many are strictly local, being the names of
springs or rivers. Others, again, appear to have emerged into greater
individual prominence, and of these we find several associated on inscriptions,
sometimes with a god of Celtic name, but sometimes with his Latin counterpart.
It is by no means certain that the names so linked together were thus
associated in early times, and the fashion may have been a later one, which,
like other fashions, spread after it had once begun. The relationship in some
cases may have been regarded as that of mother and son, in others that of
brother and sister, in others that of husband and wife; the data are not
adequate for the final decision of the question.
Of these associated pairs the following may be noted,
Mercurius and Rosmerta, Mercurius and Dirona, Grannus (Apollo) and Sirona,
Sucellus and Nantosvelta, Borvo and Damona, Cicolluis (Mars) and Litavis,
Bormanus and Bormana, Savus and Adsalluta, Mars and Nemetona.
One of these names, Sirona, probably meant the long-lived one, and was applied to the earth-mother. In Welsh one or two names have survived which, by their structure, appear to have been ancient names of goddesses; these are Rhiannon (Rigantona (the great queen), and Modron (Matrona, the great mother). The other British deities will be more fully treated by another writer in this series in a work on the ancient mythology of the British Isles. It is enough to say that research tends more and more to confirm the view that the key to the history of the Celtic deities is the realization of the local character of the vast majority of them.
Celtic Religion In Pre-Christian Times, By Edward Anwyl,
M.A., Chapter V [1906]
