Gaelic Folklore (13): River and Well Worship

13.

River and Well Worship

The Celts held their deities that lived in the waters in high esteem, a practice (in a changed form) adopted by the later christian church. Even today people bring offerings to wells in the hope to be cured from a disease. Several waters are named after the old deities. Some wells have been worshipped through the times by different peoples with different religions.

What follows are descriptions and tales from an old source: 

mong the Celts the testimony of contemporary witnesses, inscriptions, votive offerings, and survivals, shows the importance of the cult of waters and of water divinities. Mr. Gomme argues that Celtic water-worship was derived from the pre-Celtic aborigines, but if so, the Celts must have had a peculiar aptitude for it, since they were so enthusiastic in its observance. What probably happened was that the Celts, already worshippers of the waters, freely adopted local cults of water wherever they came. Some rivers or river-goddesses in Celtic regions seem to posses pre-Celtic names.

Treasures were flung into a sacred lake near Toulouse to cause a pestilence to cease. Caepion, who afterwards fished up this treasure, fell soon after in battle--a punishment for cupidity, and aurum Tolosanum now became an expression for goods dishonestly acquired. A yearly festival, lasting three days, took place at Lake Gévaudan. Garments, food, and wax were thrown into the waters, and animals were sacrificed. On the fourth day, it is said, there never failed to spring up a tempest of rain, thunder, and lightning--a strange reward for this worship of the lake. (Perhaps the feast and offerings were intended to cause rain in time of drought.)  S. Columba routed the spirits of a Scottish fountain which was worshipped as a god, and the well now became sacred, perhaps to the saint himself, who washed in it and blessed it so that it cured diseases.

On inscriptions a river name is prefixed by some divine epithet--dea, augusta, and the worshipper records his gratitude for benefits received from the divinity or the river itself. Bormanus, Bormo or Borvo, Danuvius (the Danube), and Luxovius are found on inscriptions as names of river or fountain gods, but goddesses are more numerous--Acionna, Aventia, Bormana, Brixia, Carpundia, Clutoida, Divona, Sirona, Ura--well-nymphs; and Icauna (the Yonne), Matrona, and Sequana (the Seine)--river-goddesses. No inscription to the goddess of a lake has yet been found. Some personal names like Dubrogenos (son of the Dubron), Enigenus (son of the Aenus), and the belief of Virdumarus that one of his ancestors was the Rhine, point to the idea that river-divinities might have amours with mortals and beget progeny called by their names. In Ireland, Conchobar was so named from the river whence his mother Nessa drew water, perhaps because he was a child of the river-god.

he name of the water-divinity was sometimes given to the place of his or her cult, or to the towns which sprang up on the banks of rivers-the divinity thus becoming a tutelary god. Many towns (e.g. Divonne or Dyonne, etc.) have names derived from a common Celtic river name Deuona, "divine." This name in various forms is found all over the Celtic area. (The Scots and English Dee; the Divy in Wales; Dêve, Dive, and Divette in France; Devon in England; Deva in Spain. The Shannon is surnamed even in the seventh century "the goddess".) And there is little doubt that the Celts, in their onward progress, named river after river by the name of the same divinity, believing that each new river was a part of his or her kingdom. The name was probably first an appellative, then a personal name, the divine river becoming a divinity. Deus Nemausus occurs on votive tablets at Nimes, the name Nemausus being that of the clear and abundant spring there whence flowed the river of the same name. A similar name occurs in other regions--Nemesa, a tributary of the Moselle; Nemh, the source of the Tara and the former name of the Blackwater; and Nimis, a Spanish river mentioned by Appian. Another group includes the Matrona (Marne), the Moder, the Madder, the Maronne and Maronna, and others, probably derived from a word signifying "mother." (Perhaps Matrona is Ligurian. But it seems to have strong Celtic affinities.) The mother-river was that which watered a whole region, just as in the Hindu sacred books the waters are mothers, sources of fertility. The Celtic mother-rivers were probably goddesses, akin to the Matres, givers of plenty and fertility. In Gaul, Sirona, a river-goddess, is represented like the Matres. She was associated with Grannos, perhaps as his mother, and Professor Rhŷs equates the pair with the Welsh Modron and Mabon; Modron is probably connected with Matrona.  In any case the Celts regarded rivers as bestowers of life, health, and plenty, and offered them rich gifts and sacrifices.

Gods like Grannos, Borvo, and others, equated with Apollo, presided over healing springs, and they are usually associated with goddesses, as their husbands or sons. But as the goddesses are more numerous, and as most Celtic river names are feminine, female divinities of rivers and springs doubtless had the earlier and foremost place, especially as their cult was connected with fertility. The gods, fewer in number, were all equated with Apollo, but the goddesses were not merged by the Romans into the personality of one goddess, since they themselves had their groups of river-goddesses, Nymphs and Naiads. Before the Roman conquest the cult of water-divinities, friends of mankind, must have formed a large part of the popular religion of Gaul, and their names may be counted by hundreds. Thermal springs had also their genii, and they were appropriated by the Romans, so that the local gods now shared their healing powers with Apollo, Æsculapius, and the Nymphs. Thus every spring, every woodland brook, every river in glen or valley, the roaring cataract, and the lake were haunted by divine beings, mainly thought of as beautiful females with whom the Matres were undoubtedly associated. There they revealed themselves to their worshippers, and when paganism had passed away, they remained as fées or fairies haunting spring, or well, or river. . (By extension of this belief any divinity might appear by the haunted spring. S. Patrick and his synod of bishops at an Irish well were supposed to be síd or gods.) Scores of fairy wells still exist, and by them mediæval knights had many a fabled amour with those beautiful beings still seen by the "ignorant" but romantic peasant.

anctuaries were erected at these springs by grateful worshippers, and at some of them festivals were held, or they were the resort of pilgrims. As sources of fertility they had a place in the ritual of the great festivals, and sacred wells were visited on Midsummer day, when also the river-gods claimed their human victims. Some of the goddesses were represented by statues or busts in Gallo-Roman times, if not earlier, and other images of them which have been found were of the nature of ex-votos, presented by worshippers in gratitude for the goddess's healing gifts. Money, ingots of gold or silver, and models of limbs or other parts of the body which had been or were desired to be healed, were also presented. Gregory of Tours says of the Gauls that they "represent in wood or bronze the members in which they suffer, and whose healing they desire, and place them in a temple."  Contact of the model with the divinity brought healing to the actual limbs on the principle of sympathetic magic. Many such models have been discovered. Thus in the shrine of Dea Sequana was found a vase with over a hundred; another contained over eight hundred. Inscriptions were engraved on plaques which were fastened to the walls of temples, or placed in springs.  Leaden tablets with inscriptions were placed in springs by those who desired healing or when the waters were low, and on some the actual waters are hardly discriminated from the divinities. The latter are asked to heal or flow or swell--words which apply more to the waters than to them, while the tablets, with their frank animism, also show that, in some cases, there were many elemental spirits of a well, only some of whom were rising to the rank of a goddess. They are called collectively Niskas--the Nixies of later tradition, but some have personal names--Lerano, Dibona, Dea--showing that they were tending to become separate divine personalities. The Peisgi are also appealed to, perhaps the later Piskies, unless the word is a corrupt form of a Celtic peiskos, or the Latin piscus, "fish."  This is unlikely, as fish could not exist in a warm sulphurous spring, though the Celts believed in the sacred fish of wells or streams. The fairies now associated with wells or with a water-world beneath them, are usually nameless, and only in a few cases have a definite name. They, like the older spirits of the wells, have generally a beneficent character.  Thus in the fountains of Logres dwelt damsels who fed the wayfarer with meat and bread, until grievous wrong was done them, when they disappeared and the land became waste.  Occasionally, however, they have a more malevolent character.

  

The spirit of the waters was often embodied in an animal, usually a fish. Even now in Brittany the fairy dweller in a spring has the form of an eel, while in the seventeenth century Highland wells contained fish so sacred that no one dared to catch them.  In Wales S. Cybi's well contained a huge eel in whose virtues the villagers believed, and terror prevailed when any one dared to take it from the water. Two sacred fish still exist in a holy well at Nant Peris, and are replaced by others when they die, the dead fish being buried.  (If the fish appeared when an invalid drank of the well, this was a good omen.) This latter act, solemnly performed, is a true sign of the divine or sacred character of the animal. Many wells with sacred fish exist in Ireland, and the fish have usually some supernatural quality--they never alter in size, they become invisible, or they take the form of beautiful women.  Any one destroying such fish was regarded as a sacrilegious person, and sometimes a hostile tribe killed and ate the sacred fish of a district invaded by them, just as Egyptians of one nome insulted those of another by killing their sacred animals.  In old Irish beliefs the salmon was the fish of knowledge. Thus whoever ate the salmon of Connla's well was dowered with the wisdom which had come to them through eating nuts from the hazels of knowledge around the well. In this case the sacred fish was eaten, but probably by certain persons only--those who had the right to do so. Sinend, who went to seek inspiration from the well, probably by eating one of its salmon, was overwhelmed by its waters. The legend of the salmon is perhaps based on old ritual practices of the occasional eating of a divine animal. In other cases, legends of a miraculous supply of fish from sacred wells are perhaps later Christian traditions of former pagan beliefs or customs concerning magical methods of increasing a sacred or totem animal species, like those used in Central Australia and New Guinea.  The frog is sometimes the sacred animal, and this recalls the fairytale of the Frog Bridegroom living in a well, who insisted on marrying the girl who drew its waters. Though this tale is not peculiar to the Celts, it is not improbable that the divine animal guardian of a well may have become the hero of a folk-tale, especially as such wells were sometimes taboo to women.  A fly was the guardian spirit of S. Michael's well in Banffshire. Auguries regarding health were drawn from its movements, and it was believed that the fly, when it grew old, transmigrated into another.  Such beliefs were not peculiarly Celtic. They are found in all European folk-lore, and they are still alive among savages--the animal being itself divine or the personification of a divinity. A huge sacred eel was worshipped by the Fijians; in North America and elsewhere there were serpent guardians of the waters; and the Semites worshipped the fish of sacred wells as incarnations or, symbols of a god.

ater Celtic folk-belief associated monstrous and malevolent beings with rivers and lakes. These may be the older divinities to whom a demoniac form has been given, but even in pagan times such monstrous beings may have been believed in, or they may be survivals of the more primitive monstrous guardians of the waters. The last were dragons or serpents, conventional forms of the reptiles which once dwelt in watery places, attacking all who came near. This old idea certainly survived in Irish and Highland belief, for the Fians conquered huge dragons or serpents in lochs, or saints chained them to the bottom of the waters. Hence the common place-name of Loch na piast, "Loch of the Monster." In other tales they emerge and devour the impious or feast on the dead. (S. Patrick, when he cleared Ireland of serpents, dealt in this way with the worst specimens. S. Columba quelled a monster which terrified the dwellers by the Ness.)  The Dracs of French superstition--river monsters who assume human form and drag down victims to the depths, where they devour them--resemble these.

The Each Uisge, or Water-horse, a horse with staring eyes, webbed feet, and a slimy coat, is still dreaded. He assumes different forms and lures the unwary to destruction, or he makes love in human shape to women, some of whom discover his true nature by seeing a piece of water-weed in his hair, and only escape with difficulty. Such a water-horse was forced to drag the chariot of S. Fechin of Fore, and under his influence became "gentler than any other horse."  Many Highland lochs are still haunted by this dreaded being, and he is also known in Ireland and France, where, however, he has more of a tricky and less of a demoniac nature.  His horse form is perhaps connected with the similar form ascribed to Celtic water-divinities. Manannan's horses were the waves, and he was invariably associated with a horse. Epona, the horse-goddess, was perhaps originally goddess of a spring, and, like the Matres, she is sometimes connected with the waters.  Horses were also sacrificed to river-divinities.  But the beneficent water-divinities in their horse form have undergone a curious distortion, perhaps as the result of later Christian influences. The name of one branch of the Fomorians, the Goborchinn, means the "Horse-headed," and one of their kings was Eochaid Echchenn, or "Horse-head."  Whether these have any connection with the water-horse is uncertain.

he foaming waters may have suggested another animal personification, since the name of the Boyne in Ptolemy,  is derived from a primitive bóu-s, ox, and vindo-s, white, in Irish bó find, white cow.  But it is not certain that this or the Celtic cult of the bull was connected with the belief in the Tarbh Uisge, or Water-bull, which had no ears and could assume other shapes. It dwells in lochs and is generally friendly to man, occasionally emerging to mate with ordinary cows. In the Isle of Man the Tarroo Ushtey, however, begets monsters.  These Celtic water-monsters have a curious resemblance to the Australian Bunyip. The Uruisg, often confused with the brownie, haunts lonely places and waterfalls, and, according to his mood, helps or harms the wayfarer. His appearance is that of a man with shaggy hair and beard.  In Wales the afanc is a water-monster, though the word first meant "dwarf," then "water-dwarf," of whom many kinds existed. They correspond to the Irish water-dwarfs, the Luchorpáin, descended with the Fomorians and Goborchinn from Ham.

In other cases the old water beings have a more pleasing form, like the syrens and other fairy beings who haunt French rivers, or the mermaids of Irish estuaries.  In Celtic France and Britain lake fairies are connected with a water-world like that of Elysium tales, the region of earlier divinities.  They unite with mortals, who, as in the Swan-maiden tales, lose their fairy brides through breaking a taboo. In many Welsh tales the bride is obtained by throwing bread and cheese on the waters, when she appears with an old man who has all the strength of youth. He presents his daughter and a number of fairy animals to the mortal. When she disappears into the waters after the breaking of the taboo, the lake is sometimes drained in order to recover her; the father then appears and threatens to submerge the whole district. Father and daughters are earlier lake divinities, and in the bread and cheese we may see a relic of the offerings to these.

uman sacrifice to water-divinities is suggested by the belief that water-monsters devour human beings, and by the tradition that a river claims its toll of victims every year. In popular rhymes the annual character of the sacrifice is hinted at, and Welsh legend tells of a voice heard once a year from rivers or lakes, crying, "The hour is come, but the man is not."  Here there is the trace of an abandoned custom of sacrifice and of the traditional idea of the anger of the divinity at being neglected. Such spirits or gods, like the water-monsters, would be ever on the watch to capture those who trespassed on their domain. In some cases the victim is supposed to be claimed on Midsummer eve, the time of the sacrifice in the pagan period.  The spirits of wells had also a harmful aspect to those, at least, who showed irreverence in approaching them. This is seen in legends about the danger of looking rashly into a well or neglecting to cover it, or in the belief that one must not look back after visiting the well. Spirits of wells were also besought to do harm to enemies.

Legends telling of the danger of removing or altering a well, or of the well moving elsewhere because a woman washed her hands in it, point to old taboos concerning wells. Boand, wife of Nechtain, went to the fairy well which he and his cup-bearers alone might visit, and when she showed her contempt for it, the waters rose and destroyed her. They now flow as the river Boyne. Sinend met with a similar fate for intruding on Connla's well, in this case the pursuing waters became the Shannon.  These are variants of a story which might be used to explain the origin of any river, but the legends suggest that certain wells were taboo to women because certain branches of knowledge, taught by the well, must be reserved for men.  The legends said in effect, "See what came of women obtruding beyond their proper sphere." Savage "mysteries" are usually taboo to women, who also exclude men from their sacred rites. On the other hand, as all tribal lore was once in the hands of the wise woman, such taboos and legends may have arisen when men began to claim such lore. In other legends women are connected with wells, as the guardians who must keep them locked up save when water was drawn. When the woman neglected to replace the cover, the waters burst forth, overwhelming her, and formed a loch.  (The waters often submerge a town, now seen below the waves--the town of Is in Armorica,  or the towers under Lough Neagh. In some Welsh instances a man is the culprit. In the case of Lough Neagh the keeper of the well was Liban, who lived on in the waters as a mermaid. Later she was caught and received the baptismal name of Muirghenn, "sea-birth." Here the myth of a water-goddess, said to have been baptized, is attached to the legend of the careless guardian of a spring, with whom she is identified. The woman is the priestess of the well who, neglecting part of its ritual, is punished. Even in recent times we find sacred wells in charge of a woman who instructs the visitors in the due ritual to be performed.  If such legends and survivals thus point to former Celtic Priestesses of wells, these are paralleled by the Norse Horgabrudar, guardians of wells, now elves living in the waters.  That such legends are based on the ritual of well-worship is suggested by Boand's walking three times widdershins round the well, instead of the customary deiseil. The due ritual must be observed, and the stories are a warning against its neglect.

n spite of twenty centuries of Christianity and the anathemas of saints and councils, the old pagan practices at healing wells have survived--a striking instance of human conservatism. S. Patrick found the pagans of his day worshipping a well called Slán, "health-giving," and offering sacrifices to it,  and the Irish peasant today has no doubt that there is something divine about his holy wells. The Celts brought the belief in the divinity of springs and wells with them, but would naturally adopt local cults wherever they found them. Afterwards the Church placed the old pagan wells under the protection of saints, but part of the ritual often remained unchanged. Hence many wells have been venerated for ages by different races and through changes in religion and polity. Thus at the thermal springs of Vicarello offerings have been found which show that their cult has continued from the Stone Age, through the Bronze Age, to the days of Roman civilisation, and so into modern times; nor is this a solitary instance.  But it serves to show that all races, high and low, preserve the great outlines of primitive nature religion unchanged. In all probability the ritual of the healing wells has also remained in great part unaltered, and wherever it is found it follows the same general type. The patient perambulated the well three times deiseil or sun-wise, taking care not to utter a word. Then he knelt at the well and prayed to the divinity for his healing. In modern times the saint, but occasionally the well itself, is prayed to.  Then he drank of the waters, bathed in them, or laved his limbs or sores, probably attended by the priestess of the well. Having paid her dues, he made an offering to the divinity of the well, and affixed the bandage or part of his clothing to the well or a tree nearby, that through it he might be in continuous rapport with the healing influences. Ritual formulæ probably accompanied these acts, but otherwise no word was spoken, and the patient must not look back on leaving the well. Special times, Beltane, Midsummer, or August st, were favourable for such visits,  and where a patient was too ill to present himself at the well, another might perform the ritual for him. The rag, or clothing hung on the tree seems to connect the spirit of the tree with that of the well, and tree and well are often found together. But sometimes it is thrown into the well, just as the Gaulish villagers of S. Gregory's day threw offerings of cloth and wool into a sacred lake.  The rag is even now regarded in the light of an offering, and such offerings, varying from valuable articles of clothing to mere rags, are still hung on sacred trees by the folk. It thus probably has always had a sacrificial aspect in the ritual of the well, but as magic and religion constantly blend, it had also its magical aspect. The rag, once in contact with the patient, transferred his disease to the tree, or, being still subtly connected with him, through it the healing properties passed over to him.

The offering thrown into the well--a pin, coin, etc., may also have this double aspect. The sore is often pricked or rubbed with the pin as if to transfer the disease to the well, and if picked up by another person, the disease may pass to him. This is also true of the coin.  But other examples show the sacrificial nature of the pin or other trifle, which is probably symbolic or a survival of a more costly offering. In some cases it is thought that those who do not leave it at the well from which they have drunk will die of thirst, and where a coin is offered it is often supposed to disappear, being taken by the spirit of the well.  The coin has clearly the nature of an offering, and sometimes it must be of gold or silver, while the antiquity of the custom on Celtic ground is seen by the classical descriptions of the coins glittering in the pool of Clitumnus and of the "gold of Toulouse" hid in sacred tanks.  It is also an old and widespread belief that all water belongs to some divine or monstrous guardian, who will not part with any of it without a quid pro quo. In many cases the two rites of rag and pin are not both used, and this may show that originally they had the same purpose--magical or sacrificial, or perhaps both. Other sacrifices were also made--an animal, food, or an ex voto, the last occurring even in late survivals as at S. The new's Well, Glasgow, where even in the eighteenth century tin cut to represent the diseased member was placed on the tree, or at S. Winifred's Well in Wales, where crutches were left.

ertain waters had the power of ejecting the demon of madness. Besides drinking, the patient was thrown into the waters, the shock being intended to drive the demon away, as elsewhere demons are exorcised by flagellation or beating. The divinity of the waters aided the process, and an offering was usually made to him. In other cases the sacred waters were supposed to ward off disease from the district or from those who drank of them. Or, again, they had the power of conferring fertility. Women made pilgrimages to wells, drank or bathed in the waters, implored the spirit or saint to grant them offspring, and made a due offering. (In some early Irish instances a worm swallowed with the waters by a woman causes pregnancy.)  Spirit or saint, by a transfer of his power, produced fruitfulness, but the idea was in harmony with the recognized power of water to purify, strengthen, and heal. Women, for a similar reason, drank or washed in the waters or wore some articles dipped in them, in order to have an easy delivery or abundance of milk.

The waters also gave oracles, their method of flowing the amount of water in the well, the appearance or non-appearance of bubbles at the surface when an offering was thrown in, the sinking or floating of various articles, all indicating whether a cure was likely to occur, whether fortune or misfortune awaited the inquirer, or, in the case of girls, whether their lovers would be faithful. The movements of the animal guardian of the well were also ominous to the visitor.  Rivers or river divinities were also appealed to. In cases of suspected fidelity the Celts dwelling by the Rhine placed the newly-born child in a shield on the waters. If it floated the mother was innocent; if it sank it was allowed to drown, and she was put to death. (The practice may have been connected with that noted by Aristotle, of plunging the newly-born into a river, to strengthen it, as he says, but more probably as a baptismal or purificatory rite.  Girls whose purity was suspected were similarly tested, and S. Gregory of Tours tells how a woman accused of adultery was proved by being thrown into the Saône.  The mediæval witch ordeal by water is connected with this custom, which is, however, widespread.

he malevolent aspect of the spirit of the well is seen in the "cursing wells" of which it was thought that when some article inscribed with an enemy's name was thrown into them with the accompaniment of a curse, the spirit of the well would cause his death. In some cases the curse was inscribed on a leaden tablet thrown into the waters, just as, in other cases, a prayer for the offerer's benefit was engraved on it. Or, again, objects over which a charm had been said were placed in a well that the victim who drew water might be injured. An excellent instance of a cursing-well is that of Fynnon Elian in Denbigh, which must once have had a guardian priestess, for in  an old woman who had charge of it presided at the ceremony. She wrote the name of the victim in a book, receiving a gift at the same time. A pin was dropped into the well in the name of the victim, and through it and through knowledge of his name, the spirit of the well-acted upon him to his hurt.  Obviously rites like these, in which magic and religion mingle, are not purely Celtic, but it is of interest to note their existence in Celtic lands and among Celtic folk.

The Religion of the Ancient Celts, By J. A. MacCulloch, 1911

Nico

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Magic (1): Precious Stones

1.
Precious Stones

A list of stones with their attributed properties, from the book:

The Mirror of Stones, 1502, By Camillus Leonardus.

This is a summary of a list of precious stones, taken from the book Speculum Lapides, originally printed in Latin, AD 1502, by the author Camillus Leonardus.   I used the English translation "Mirror of Stones" from AD 1750. Only the old names and where possible the modern names (subject to errors) and the attributed properties of the stones are included in this list. Sometimes the locations are mentioned. Stones of which I could not find the modern name are marked with a question mark. The spelling has been modernized because of the readability.

The attribution of properties of stones probably began thousands of years ago. The Hebrew, Hindu  and Christian holy books mention such attributed properties. Egyptian and Mesopotamian civilizations mention them too. From there it is a small step to the ancient Roman and Greek civilizations. These were studied and copied by the Europeans in the middle-ages without questioning. During the times that went by, some holy stones were forgotten, other stones were given even more attributed properties. Up to the point that there are stones with the attributed property to protect a computer…

 

damant, or the Diamond,

To repel poison, though ever so deadly; is a defense against the arts of sorcery; disperses vain fears, enables to quell ail quarrels and contentions; is a help to lunatics, and such as are possessed with the devil being bound to the left arm, it gives victory over enemies; it tames wild beasts; it helps those who are troubled with phantoms, and the night-mare; and makes him that wears it bold and daring in his transactions. The Indian Adamant, and likewise the Arabic, has the property of the magnet, to direct the needle touched by it to the Arctic pole, and from hence some call it the adamantine loadstone.

Achates (now: Agate),

The virtues of the Achates differ according to the diversities of their Species, but all of them agree in this, to make men solicitous. But the proper virtue of the Sicilian is, to subdue the poison of vipers and scorpions, if it be bound on the puncture, or being bruised, drank in a glass of wine. The Indian is an enemy to all venomous things. It refreshes the sight by looking on it. Being held in the mouth it quenches thirst.  It gives victory to him that wears it, turns away storms; and puts a stop to lightning. The Cretan sharpens the sight; extinguishes thirst and poisons, renders the wearer of it gracious and eloquent; and preserves and confirms strength.  It seems superfluous to particularize the virtues of them all, since they coincide one with another; and therefore, for brevity’s sake, we shall omit them.

Amethyst,

Their virtue is to drive away drunkenness; for being bound on the navel, they restrain the vapor of the wine, and so dissolve the ebriety; they repress evil thoughts, and give a good understanding, they make a man vigilant and expert in business; the barren they render fruitful by drinking a lotion of it; they expel poison; they preserve military men, and give them victory over their enemies; and prepare an easy capture of wild beasts and birds.

Alestoria, Alectoria, Alestorias, Alestorius, Gallinaceus, (Cocks-Gizzard-stone),

some call it Gallinaceus, from the place of its generation, the Intestines of capons, which were castrated when they were three years old, and had lived seven; before which time it ought not to be taken out; for the older it is, so much the better. When the stone is become perfect in the capon, he don’t drink. However, ’tis never found bigger than a large bean. The virtue of this stone is, to render him who carries it invisible; being held in the mouth, it allays thirst, and therefore is proper for wrestlers; makes a woman agreeable to her husband; bellows honors, and preserves those already acquired; it frees such as are bewitched; it renders a man eloquent, constant, agreeable and amiable, it helps to regain a lost kingdom, and acquire a foreign one.

Androdamas (means Man-subduing, (now: Red Iron Froth),

It’s supposed that it derived its name from its virtue; which is to restrain anger and the violent emotions of the mind, also to mitigate luxury and lessen the gravity of the body.

  

Alabandina (now: Alanbandite),

Its property is to promote a flux of blood. Being drank, it expels and drives out all the virulence of poison.

Agapis (now: Spines of fossilized sea urchins),

Being bound to the wound, it has a wonderful virtue, in curing the stings of scorpions and the bites of vipers. For being dipped in water, and rubbed over the wound, it immediately takes away or mitigates the pain.

Andromantes (now: Pyrite, Marcasite),

Its virtue is to drive away pestilential air, and render the bearer of it safe. It is good in impostumes and therefore called by that name; in like manner as we before spoke of the Agapis.

Amandinus,

Its virtue is extolled for its efficacy in expelling poison; it makes the wearer of it victorious, and instruct the Interpreter of dreams and enigmas to solve any questions propounded to him about them.

Abeston or Abestus, Abistos (now: Asbestos),

It is called Abeston, from its being inextinguishable; for, being set on fire, it retains a perpetual flame. The pagans made use of it for lights in their temples, because it preserved a most strong and unquenchable flame, not to be extinguished by showers or storms. It is of a woolly texture, and many call it the Salamander Feather. Its fire is nourished by an inseparable unctuous humid flowing from its substance, therefore being once kindled it preserves a constant light without feeding it with any moisture. Being heated in the fire for eight days, it retains the heat in itself.

Asius (now: Chernites, white marble),

Its virtue is very powerful. For it cures the phthisis, being mixed with the juice of roles, in the manner of an electuary. It is said to cure the King’s evil, fistulas, the gout, and many other disorders, as we find in the Books of Physicians.

Amianton (now: Amiante),

They say its virtue is prevalent against the incantations and sorceries of magicians.

Alabaster, or Alabastrites, Dioscorides,

Doctors account it good in physics. He who carries it will prove victorious in suits at law.

Aspilaten (now Turquoise),

Found in the nest of Arabian birds, it cures the splenetic, being bound to the spleen with the dung of a camel.

Asinus, or Asininus?,

This stone is of two sorts, the maxillary and cephalic. The cephalic being placed on the head, gives ease to the pain of it. The maxillary cures the epilepsy, because it is found in the jaw. It makes the bearer of it unwearied, so that he shall never faint in battle; but rather, when his enemies are tired, he, with recruited strength, shall smite them with, redoubled fury. Taken with wine, it drives away Quartan Ague.  It is wonderfully efficacious in destroying the worms in children. If it be taken in wine, it correct the poison of the water which has been drunk wherein it flood. It is said to assist pregnant women, and to bring forth the dead fetus from the womb.

Arabica, or Arabus (now: Pumice),  

It is said to be good in nervous disorders. It has the smell and color of myrrh, and is used as a scent. Being burnt, it is a good dentifrice.

Amiatus, or Amianthus, (now: A type of asbestos),

It is said to have power against magic arts; and also is extremely useful in medicine.

Antiphates (now: Black Coral),

If it be boiled in wine or milk, it has the taste of myrrh, and is a defense against witchcraft.

Armenus (now: Armenian Bole),

Has an admirable property in curing melancholy.

Aquilinus (now: Fish Otoliths: An otolith is a calcium carbonate structure in the saccule or utricle of the inner ear, specifically in the vestibular system of vertebrates.),

A lymphatic, is found in a certain fish, and is beneficial to the life of man. For being hung about the neck, or otherwise carried, it drives off and takes away the miseries of a Quartan Ague (mild form of malaria).

Anancithidus (now: Ananeithidus),

Is a necromantic stone whose virtue is to call up evil spirits and ghosts.

  

alasius (now: Spinel Ruby),

The Virtue of the Balasius is to overcome and repress vain thoughts and luxury; to reconcile quarrels among friends, and befriends the human body with a good habit of health. Being bruised and drank with water, it relieves infirmities in the eyes, and gives help in disorders of the liver and, what is it still more surprising, if you touch the four corners of a house, garden, or vineyard, with the Balasius, it will preserve them from lightning, tempest and worms.

Beryl,

It has various virtues. It renders the bearer of it cheerful preserves and increases conjugal love, being hung to the neck, it drives away idle dreams; it cures the distempers of the throat and jaws, and all disorders proceeding from the humidity of the head, and is a preservative against them; being taken mixed with an equal quantity of silver, it cures the Leprosy. The Water in which it has been put, is good for the eyes; and if drank, it dispels heaviness and cures the indispositions of the liver. It helps pregnant women in preventing abortive births, and other Incommodities to which they are liable.

 Borax, Nosa, Crapondinus (now Toadstone (fossil fish teeth belonging to the genus Lepidotes),

Are synonymous names of the same stone, which is extracted from a toad , they have a wonderful efficacy in poisons, for whoever has taken poison, let him swallow this ; which being down, rolls about the bowels, and drives out every poisonous quality that is lodged in the Intestines; and then passes through the fundament and is preserved. It is an excellent remedy for the bites of reptiles, and takes away fevers. If it be made into a lotion and taken, it is a great help in disorders of the stomach and reins; and some say, it has the same effect if carried about one.

Bezoar,

All agree that it obtains the first place in remedies against Poisons. For a dram of it taken, entirely expels the poison whatever it be. And hence, for its excellence, everything that frees the body from any ailment, is called the Bezoar of that ailment. And thus its Name is become general, as is held by the conciliator concerning Poisons, and by many other learned Men.

(A Bezoar is a (sometimes stone like) mass found trapped in the gastrointestinal system.  The word "bezoar" comes from the Persian pād-zahr which literally means "antidote”. Bezoars had value because they were believed to have the power of a universal antidote against any poison. The Andalusian physician Ibn Zuhr (d. 1161), known in the West as Avenzoar, is thought to have made the earliest description of bezoar stones as medicinal items.  (1)

There are several different Bezoars known:

Lapis Bezoar or Bezoardicus, lapis Bezoar Orientalis, lapis Bezoar Occidentalis, lapis Bezoar Coromandel, lapis Bezoar Germanicus, lapis Porcinus, lapis Hystricinus, lapis Bezoar Simiae, lapis Bezoar Tricho, etc. (2) (Dutch site)

A Goa stone is a man-made bezoar that is considered to have medicinal and talismanic properties. Goa stones were manufactured by Jesuits in the late seventeenth century in Goa, India, because naturally occurring bezoars were scarce. Like bezoar stones, Goa stones were thought to prevent disease and cure poisoning. They could be administered by shaving off small pieces into a drinkable beverage like water, tea, or wine. Goa stones were kept in ornate, solid gold or gilded cases that were believed to enhance the medicinal properties of the stones. The cases usually featured a busy network of filigree, occasionally adorned with ornaments of animals, including monkeys, unicorns, dogs, and parrots. (3)

Bolus Armenus (now: Armenian bole),

It is an excellent remedy in pestilential fevers and fluxes of the belly. It helps against spewing blood, the splenetic, and such as are disordered in the stomach.

Beloculus (Bel Oculus, Fair eye, now: Cat’s eye),

It is said to render the bearer of it invisible in a Field-Battle.

  

Bronia (now: Ammonite fossil),

Its virtue is to resist lightning

Carbuncle, and by some called Anthrax (now divers stones),

The virtual power of the carbuncle is to drive away poisonous and infectious air, to repress luxury, to give and preserve the health of the body. It takes away vain thoughts, reconciles differences among friends, and makes a mighty increase of prosperity.

Calcedonius, or Calcedon (now Chalcedon),

Being hung about the neck, they drive away fantastical Illusions occasioned by melancholy. If a person carries about him one of them perforated, with the hairs of an ass run through, he will be successful in civil causes and contentions, and it preserves the strength of the body. The black or Saphirine prevent hoarseness and clear the voice. All the species of it bridle lust, and is a preservative from tempests and sinister events.

Chelidonius (now Swallow stone),

Is a stone found in the stomach of a young swallow, and is of two species. That which is red, if carried in a clean linen cloth, is of service to mad people and lunatics, and eradicates periodical disorders. It renders those who wear it eloquent and acceptable. Being bruised to pieces in water, and made into a pellet, it cures the distempers of the eyes. But the black conducts affairs undertaken to a happy Issue. It quells anger, and makes the bearer of it agreeable and pleasant and appeases the wrath of matters. Being tied about the neck in a yellow Linen cloth, it drives away fevers, and puts a stop to and brings down all noxious humors. It has been experienced, that if it be hung about the neck, it cures the epilepsy, or falling sickness, and the jaundice. Some say, it should be wrapped in the skin of a calf, or a flung hart, and bound to the left arm. Such stones ought to be extracted while the young brood stand in their nest; and if taken in the month of august, they will be the more perfect, provided the young birds do not touch the earth, nor their dams be present when they are extracted.

Coral,

Of this there are two species, the red and white, their virtues, but chiefly of the red, is to stop every flux of blood. Being carried about one, or wherever it be in a house or ship, it drives away ghouls, hobgoblins, illusions, dreams, lightning, winds and tempests. Metbrodorus calls it the Gorgon; which he interprets of its refilling whirl winds and lightning, and that it protects from every incursion of wild beasts. It gives relief in pains of the stomach and heart. Being hung down upon the stomach, or taken internally, it helps the weakness thereof. It is good for an impostumes in the spleen or Intestines, It makes sound the walled gums; cleanses putrid sores, and represses any hurtful medicine. The shavings or scrapings of it, drank with wine, are good against the gravel. Being broke to pieces and strewn, or hung up among fruit bearing trees; or dispersed with seed in a field, it gives fertility, and keeps off hail and blighting winds. I have had it from a creditable person, and have often experienced it myself, that it will prevent infants, just born, from falling into an epilepsy. Let there be put in the mouth of the child, before it has tailed any Thing, half a scruple of the powder of red coral; and let it be swallowed, for it is a wonderful preserver. Many of its virtues I omit for the sake of brevity.

Cornelian (now: Carnelian),

It restrains menstruous fluxes, and stops the hemorrhoids. It cures the bloody flux; and being worn about the neck, or on the finger, it asswages strife and anger.

Crystal,

Crystal being hung about those that are asleep, keeps off bad dreams; dissolves spells, being held in the mouth, it assuages thirst; and when bruised with honey, fills the breasts with milk.

Crisoprassus or Crisopressus (now: Chrysoprase),

Its principal virtue is to cherish the sight. It gives assiduity in good works; it banishes covetousness;

makes the heart glad, and removes uneasiness’s from it.

Crisolitus, Crisolimus, or Crisolensis (now: Olivine),

A Crisolitus bound round with gold, and carried in the left Hand, drives away Night-hags, and

disperses fears and melancholy illusions. It is particularly efficacious in rendering ineffectual the inclinations and enchantments of those detestable creatures called witches. It being bored thro’, and the hairs of an ass passed through it, its virtue is the greater in driving away evil spirits. If held in the hand, it extinguishes a feverish heat.  

Celonites, or Celontes (now Turtle stone),

Is, as fame will have it, of three kinds. It is extracted from a large tortoise, and has a shell of a pearl

color. This sort is spotted and purple, and its property is to refill fire. The virtue of it deserves particular regard; for whoever shall at a proper time, having first washed his mouth, carry it under his tongue, will presently feel in himself a kind of divine inspiration to foretell future events. Such times are these: The whole day of the first of the new moon, and for the fifteen Days following during the lunar ascension, every day from sun rising till six o’clock. But in the decrease, it pours forth the effect of its virtue all the time before day. The other two stones are cephalic and hepatic, whose virtues are not trivial. The cephalic, is so called from the place where it is found, i. e. the head, and is good for the headache, and resist lightning. The hepatic is likewise so called from the place where it is found, i.e. the liver. Being bruised and drank with water just before the coming on of a Quartan Ague, it wonderfully prevents it. These stones are likewise called drone. Being carried with a root of peony, it makes those who carry them mailers of their desires.

Cogolites, or Cegolites (now Cogolite),

It is not grateful to the sight, but is useful in medicine. Being bruised and dissolved in water, and taken inwardly, it dissolves stones in the kidneys, and clears the bladder from gravel, and being drank with a proper quantity of water, removes the strangury.

Ceraunius, or Cerraolus?,

They are said to fall from the clouds, and in a place near where has been a stroke of thunder.  it preserves the bearer of it from drowning, and from being hurt by a whirlwind or lightning; it gives sweet and pleasant dreams.

Corvina (now: Fish Otolith),

Is a stone found in the head of the fish Cabot, and are always two. It is extracted while the fish is yet

panting, in the increase of the moon, and in the month of May. Being carried in such a manner as it may touch the flesh, it cures the gripes, and being bruised and taken, it has the same effect.

Cimedia (now: Fish Otolith),

Is taken out of the brain of a fish of the same name. Magicians say, that their virtue is to foretell

the calms and storms of the sea and air. If taken in drink they excite luxury in the Day.

Calchophanus?,

Is black; and being carried in the mouth, preserves the windpipe from hoarseness, and makes the voice sonorous.

Crisocollus (now Chrysocolla),

It has the virtue of the magnet, and increases gold.

Crisonterinus?,

Being hung about the neck, it cures the pthisical, and, after the fame manner, it removes the Pain which Children feel in breeding Teeth.

Cysteolithos (now Spongolite),

It helps those troubled with the stone, if drank in strong Wine, and if hung about the necks of children, it takes away the cough.

Catochites?,

It separates any glutinous thing that slicks to the hands of him that touches it; and then fastens itself

to the body like glue. It makes a man victorious in contests, and by taking one scruple of it, it is powerful against magic arts.

Corvia (now: Crow stone),

Is a stone of a reddish color, and accounted artificial. On the calends of April, boil the eggs taken out of a crow’s nest, till they are hard, and being cold, let them be placed in the nest as they were before. When the crow knows this, she flies a long way to find this stone; and having found it, returns to the nest; and the eggs being touched with it, they become fresh and prolific. The stone must immediately be snatched out of the nest. Its virtue is to increase riches, to bestow Honors, and to foretell many future events.

Cambnites?,

He who carries it, will please men, and be affable and amiable to all. If bound to the left arm, it cures the dropsically.

Calorites (now: Chlorites),

Magicians report, that it is taken out of the belly of the bird Scylla. If bound with Iron, it is powerful in magic arts. (Nisus, in Greek mythology, king of Megara, Nisus had a purple lock of hair with magic power: if preserved, it would guarantee him life and continued possession of his kingdom. When King Minos of Crete besieged Megara, Nisus’ daughter Scylla fell in love with Minos: she betrayed her city by cutting off her father’s purple lock. Nisus was killed and became transformed into a sea eagle. Scylla later drowned, possibly at the hand of Minos, and was changed into a sea bird, possibly a heron, constantly pursued by the sea eagle. NvL)

Caristeus?,

It is grateful to the sight, which it comforts with its greenness.

Calaminaris (now: Smithsonite),

If it be drenched nine times in vinegar, and finely pulverized with the blood of a fowl, it makes a fine

eye salve.                         

emonius (now: Probably an Agate),

It is said to be a powerful relief against agues, expels poison, and renders the bearer of it safe from, and a conqueror over his enemies.

Dionysia?,

If it be dissolved in Water, it gets the Smell of Wine; and with its Odor disperses Drunkenness, and overcomes, and causes the Odor of the Wine to evaporate.

Diacodas, or Diacodus?,

It disturbs devils beyond all others, as in some measure may be made appear. For if it be thrown in water, with the words of its charm sung, it shews various Images of devils, and gives answers to those that question it. Being held in the mouth; a man may call any devil out of Hell, and receive satisfaction to such questions as he may ask. It abhors the bodies of the dead, for if you should touch the body of a dead person with it, you will soon deprive it of its virtue.

Draconites, or Dendrites, or Draconius, or Obsianus (now: Obsidian),

It is brought from the East, where there are great dragons; for it is taken out of the head of dragons, cut off while the beast is yet panting. It loses its virtue if it remains in the head any time after the death of the dragon. Some bold fellows, in those Eastern parts, search out the dens of the dragons, and in these they drew grass, mixed with soporiferous medicaments which the dragons, when they return to their dens, eat and are thrown into a sleep and in that condition they cut off their heads, and extract the stone. It has a rare virtue in subduing all sorts of poison, especially that of serpents. It also renders the possessor of it bold and invincible, for which reason, the kings of the East boast: they have such a stone.

Drosolitus?,

Is a stone of a various color, and derives its name from itself; for if it be put near the fire, it emits a kind of sweat.

Doriatides, Cat stone, (now Obsidian)

Is a stone found in the head of a cat, suddenly cut off, and given to the Pismires to eat, and the color of it is black and shining. Some will have it to be extracted from the Head of a Cock; as here-after, under the head Radain. Its virtue is to pursue all our Wishes, and obtain all our Desires.

thiopia, Elitropia, or Elitropus (now: Heliotrope, Bloodstone)

Necromancers call it the Babylonian stone. The cause of its name is taken from its effects. This is the readied way of knowing it. If it be put into water in a basin, which has been first rubbed over with the juice of the herb of its own name, and set under the rays of the sun, the water will appear red, and the sun bloody, as if it differed an eclipse. At length the water will bubble up, and run over the basin, as if it had been worked up by fire being placed out of the water, it receives the sun in the manner of a mirror. So that by inspecting the Elitropia, we may see the solar eclipses. Magicians report, that if it be consecrated with a certain verse, and inscribed with certain characters, it will enable the owner of it to foretell future things, and if it be rubbed over with the juice of the herb of its own name, it deceives the sight, in such a manner, as that it renders the bearer of it invisible. The virtue of it is, to procure safety and long life to the possessor of it; & likewise stops any flux of blood. Poisons also submit to it.

Emathites (now: Hematite),

It claims its name from its virtue. For Emeth signifies Blood, and litel stopping; for its principal virtue is to stop bleeding. Its virtue is styptic, if it be washed according to medicinal art. But Galen holds, that it is warming and extenuating, which must not be understood of that which is washed. It is a most excellent remedy for the blood spewing, such as are troubled with the bloody flux, and the menses, if it be ground in a mortar with a proper liquor till it acquires a bloody color. If to what has been before-mentioned be added, the white of an egg, or honey, or the juice of a red apple, it heals the sharp humor of the eyes and darkness of the sight. being drank with wine, it helps those that are wounded with the stings of serpents. The dull of it likewise cures fungous flesh. If mixed with honey, it is useful for those that are troubled with bad eyes. It is also said to dissolve the stone in the bladder, and if put over hot water, it grows warm, and throws out a heat.

Ethices, or Endes, Aquileus, Praegnus (now: Aetitis, Geode, Eagle-stone. A globular mass of clay iron-stone. Sometimes it is hollow within, and sometimes it encloses another stone, or a little water, or some mineral dust.),

Its virtue is admirable. For some say, if it be held out to one that has poisoned meat in his hand, he will not be able to swallow it; the stone being removed, he may take it. Some say, it must be put into the meat. Being tied to the left arm of a pregnant woman, it prevents abortion. And if in the hour of birth, it be bound to the thigh, it removes dangers, and accelerates the birth. It helps those who are troubled with the epilepsy. It drives away poisonous creatures, and therefore eagles lay it in their nests, that

their eggs and young may be preserved untouched by venomous animals. It makes the bearer of it amiable, sober, and rich, and preserves him from adverse casualties.

Enydros, or Eryndros (now: Geode),

It is of an exceeding cold nature, it does, with its frigidity, convert the air, which continually touches it, into water. It is good in burning fevers.

Epistides, or Epistrites, Hēphaestītis, Vulcan stone?

They say, if it be fastened over the heart with magical bands, and repeating proper verses, it will keep a man safe from every misfortune. It drives away locusts and mischievous birds, blighting winds, and Storms.

Exacolitus?,

It has a solutive (laxative) virtue, as skillful physicians say, and being dissolved in wine and drank, it helps those that are troubled with the colic and Iliac passion.

Exebonos, or Exebenus?,

Being bruised and drank, it cures those that are mad. It heals pains in the stomach, and cherishes the fetus in the womb. It dissolves the stone in the bladder; if bound to the thigh, it hastens the birth; and restrains lechery.

Eumetis?,

Being put under the Head of one who is sleeping, it makes nocturnal dreams like oracles.

Egyptilla (now: Onyx), 

If bruised in Water, it yields a Saffron Color and the Taste of Wine.

Effestis, or Effestites?,

 if it be put in hot Water, it grows warm, and being opposed to the sun, kindles fire in matter put in a disposition for it. (Magnifying glass)

Elopsites?,

being hung about the head, it cures the headache.

ilaterius, (now: Chrysolithus)

It disperses terrors and melancholic passions; gives cheerfulness and wisdom; renders the bearer there of complainant, and comforts the spirits.

Falcones or Arsenick, vulgarly Arsenick (now Orpiment),

by Alchemists is called one of the spirits. It has a warming and drying virtue, and by calcination acquires blackness, but after sublimation it has a whiteness; and when it is sublimated three or four times, it becomes a dust in the highest degree, so that it corrodes all metals except Gold. Being pulverized, and put into a wound, it eats away the proud flesh. Taken inwardly, it is poison to all animals.

Frigius, Phrygius (now Calamine)

much used in medicine, as Dioscorides said; for it cures fistulas and the gout.

ranate (now: Garnet),

Its virtue is to cheer the heart and drive away sorrow. Some say, it defends the bearer of it from pestilential diseases.

Galablides, or Galaricides (now Milk stone, Galactites),

If it be bruised in water, it gives the color and taste of milk. It is differently named from the diversity of its virtue. Some call it Elebron, magicians Senochites, others Graffites, some Galbates or Anachites. Magicians infinitely extol this stone; for it makes magical writings to be heard, and ghosts called up to return Answers. It also buries in oblivion quarrels and mischiefs formerly done. He who carries it about him, and should happen to offend the King or any other person, it will presently pacify and bring him to a benevolent temper. It makes a man victorious in causes, witty, amiable and eloquent, and is a protection against witchcraft. Being hung about the neck, it fills the breasts with milk. If tied to the thigh with a woolen thread, it facilitates the birth of a pregnant ewe; but if held in the mouth till it melts, it disturb the mind. If bruised and mixed with salt, and strewed over a foul sheepfold, as the Egyptian shepherds say, it fills the udders of the sheep with milk and makes them fruitful, and frees them from the mange. They say likewise, that it cures the itch in Man. Being bound to a tooth, it takes away its stinking smell. If three times bruised with water and dried, and given to drink in clear water, it heals discords. It joins in love two who are at variance, so that their love will afterwards be inseparable.

Garatronicus or Galgatromeus?,  

This is useful for military men. It is reported that Achilles had it, and carried it with him to the war; that he was never foiled by any man, but always came off victorious; but happening to be without it he fell by his enemies. The Eastern have great quantities of them, and make hilts for their swords of it, that so they may never be without it when they go into battle, since its virtue is to render the bearer of it conqueror.

Galatides, Galastica or Gelatia?,

So cold that it can hardly be warmed by ire; which proceeds from the exceeding closeness of its pores, which will not suffer the heat of the fire to penetrate. Its coldness bridles luxury and restrains anger, and yields a remedy for all the feverish Indispositions of the human body.

Gelachides or Garatides, Gerachides?,

Renders the bearer of it amiable, mild and gracious. Being held in the mouth, it makes a man give true judgment, and rightly distinguish between various opinions, and will let him know what another thinks of him. The learned say, we may know such a stone by trial. Thus, if a human body be smeared with honey, and put in a place where there are flies, if this stone be held in the hand, and it is a genuine Garatides , the body remains untouched by the flies and bees, and when the stone is let go, it will be molested.

Gargates (now: Jet),

There are two Species of it; the citron, which is called Amber, of which we shall speak hereafter; the other is black, and by many called black Amber; and this is properly the Gargates; The smoke of

it drives away Devils, and dissolves spells and enchantments, and helps the dropsically. Being bruised in water, and given to a pregnant Woman, it brings forward the fetus ; and in whatever manner it is drank by a woman, it makes her void foul urine; but has no such effects on a virgin. If used as a perfume, it is said to provoke the menses in women, to cure the epilepsy, to drive away serpents, and to heal their bite if mixed with the marrow of a stag, and fastens loose teeth.

Gerodes?,

Its virtue is to defend a man from birds of prey.

Garamantica (now: Opal),

Is like the emerald, and has a cross white line ; it is of great use in the magic art.

Grogius (now: Coral),

Is the same as coral; it takes its name from its power of stopping thunder and lightning.

Glosopetra, or Gulofus (now: Glossopetrae, fossilized Shark teeth),

They say, it is not bred in the earth, but in the wane of the moon falls from heaven. Magicians attribute to it an extraordinary efficacy in their art; for by it they say, the lunar motions are excited.

                                                                                                                                                                   

 yena (now Hyaenia),

Is a precious stone and worthy to be preserved. It is denominated from the beast of its own name, in whose eyes it is found. It is of many colors. The use of it, if Report be true, is, that if the mouth be washed, and it is put under the tongue, it will immediately make the person foretell future things. Whoever carries it about him will never have the Quartan Ague, nor the gout.

Hamonis (now: Ammonite fossile),

If a man puts himself in a posture of contemplation, it gives the mind a representation of all divine things.                                                                                                          

acinth,

They invigorate animal life, especially the heart. They disperse sorrow and imaginary suspicions.

They increase Ingenuity, glory and riches area defense against lightning and enemies and a security to travelers, so that no pestilence in any Country shall hurt them; it raises men to noble honors, and preserves from epidemical distempers. Aristotle, indeed, holds, that they prepare women for a miscarriage.

Jasper, Jaspis

It drives away the fever and dropsy, clears the sight, expels noxious phantasms, restrains luxury, and

prevents conception. But especially the green with saffron veins, which helps women that are pregnant or in labor. It makes the bearer of it victorious, powerful, and agreeable. But in all its species, its principal virtue is to stop the flux of blood whence so ever it arises ; it ought to be set in Gold, because that increases its virtues.

                                                                                                                         abrates, Kacabre or Kakabrest (now: Lignite),

Whole virtue is, to render a man eloquent and healthful it gives honors, benevolence, and defends him from evil casualties, it likewise cures the dropsy.

Karabe (now: Yellow Amber),

The perfume of it moves the epilepsy.

Kenne (now: Kanne,  Lapis Cervinus),

It is said, is bred in the eyes of stags in the Eastern parts; its virtue is good against poisons.

Kinocetus?,

Is a stone not wholly useless, since it will cast out Devils.

yncurius (now: Tourmaline),

Is a stone generated out of the urine of the lynx, and is hardened by time. The virtue of it is, to assuage the pain in the stomach, to cure the jaundice, to stop a flux, and is good for the King’s Evil.

Lyncis (now: Belemnites),

Is also a stone generated of the urine of the animal of its own name; but differs from those above mentioned; when it is in the Earth it is soft, but when put in a dry place, it hardens. Its color is white mixed with black closing with one another. While it is kept in the earth or in a mold place before it is made dry, it generates mushrooms. The virtue of this stone, or of the mushrooms, is to help such as are troubled with the gravel or stone, it takes away the pain of the stomach, allays the flux of the belly, and cures fits of the mother.

Lippares, or Liparia?,

Is a stone to which all kinds of animals come of their own accord, as it were by a natural Instinct.

Some say, that he who has this stone, needs no other Invention to catch wild beasts; it is frequently found in Libya. Others say, that it has a wonderful virtue in defending animals. For when a beast is pursued by dogs and the hunters, he hasten to find out this stone, to which he dies as to his protector and defender. For so long as the animal looks upon the laid stone, neither the dogs nor the huntsman can see, which if it be so, is indeed very strange ; yet it is affirmed by the learned ; and as to this, I believe the saying of pliny is very true. That there is no lie so impudent which is not vouched by authority.

Limacie (Now Limaceus, Snail stone),

Is a stone which took its name from the animal in whose head it is found. It is extracted from the head of a snail without a shell, whose abode is in damp and rocky places. It ought to be drawn out the instant it is seen, by squeezing the head. It is of a white color, and but little transparent, small, and like a piece of a man’s nail. They say, if it be hung about the neck, it cures one of a fever.

Lasteus (now: Galactites),

Is a stone known by its citron color; if bruised in a mortar with any liquor, it turns to a milky white. If applied to rheumatic eyes, it stops the course of the humors; it likewise avails in the beginning of Impostumes of hot eyes.

Ligurius (now Amber),

As some fancy, is like the Electortus , and draws straws. It appeases the pain of the stomach, stops the flux of the felly, cures the Jaundice, sharpens the sight, and by physicians is ranked among the

remedies for the eyes.

Lignites (now Lignite),

Being hung about a child, it preserves it from witchcraft, and from the hellish practices of a certain sort of women commonly called witches. Being bound about the forehead, it stops a bleeding at the nose, restores the loss of the senses, and helps to foretell future events.

Limphicus?,

Is a stone of great virtue. If wrapped in silk, it is a preservative against all distempers in the eyes, jaws, throat, a cough and headache, not only at present, but for the future.

Lauraces,

Are the stones which cure the headache.

argarita or Pearl,

Has the first place among white gems, generated by celestial dew in some sea-shell fish, as is held by authors. These shell-fish, it’s reported, early in a morning, at a certain season of the year, leave the bottom of the sea, to draw in the air, of which pearls are generated, and according to the clearness of the air taken in. Pearls have physical virtues exceeding the commodiousness of ornament; being boiled in meat they cure the Quartan Ague; bruised and taken with milk they heal putrid ulcers, and being so taken wonderfully clear the voice. They comfort the heart, and give relief in pains of the stomach, and remove the epilepsy, they stop the flux of the belly , if taken with sugar, they yield help in pestilential fevers and render him who carries them chaste.

Medus, Medinus (now: Hematite),

This stone is of two species, the black and the green; but the green is called Medinus. If the black is put into a green mortar, and dissolved with the milk of a woman who has a male child, and applied to the eyes, it restores lost sight; but if dissolved in the milk of an ewe, which has once had a lamb, it cures the gout, if bound on to the places affected. Being taken through the mouth, it is a pernicious poison. But this stone is deservedly called the giver of death and health. The green, which is called Medinus, if bruised and mixed with gall, a little of the magnet and rainwater, and put to the eyes for seven days, it nourishes the sight, and makes them see things the most minute and almost invisible.

Mirites?,

For color and smell, is like myrrh; being rubbed on cloth, it emits the odor of spikenard with its sweetness.

Malachites (now: Malachite),

The virtue of this stone is to defend Infants from adverse casualties, and preserve the cradle from hurtful fancies, that so infants may grow up in all prosperity.

Memphitis, (now: Marble),

Some think this stone is useful to surgeons; as its virtue is more stupefying than opium. For being taken in drink, of bruised in vinegar, and applied to the members which are to be cut off or burnt, it makes them so insensible, that they feel scarce any pain.

Magnet,

Or the Loadstone. In attracting Iron, it seems to have a kind of animal virtue, and that not only in attraction, but in imprinting its virtue on it with a fort of Symboleity (?). For iron, touched by the magnet, draws to itself another Iron body, as if it were another magnet. It seems to contend with the diamond, for when the diamond is put to it, it does not attract iron. Garlic likewise binds up its virtue. We can give no reason for this, since philosophers are ignorant of it, who only say, that it proceeds from an occult property. I find there are three species; one which attracts Iron only, another which draws to itself human flesh; and a third, which is called Hymmo , which on one side draws iron, and on the other drives it away; and this only is with us; the rest we have not seen. It throws iron from it in this manner; for Iron that is touched by one part of the magnet is drawn to it, and the opposite part being offered, is driven away as experience shows by a needle hung to a thread In the magnet this is wonderful, that it has in it the virtue part of heaven. Some call it the sacred stone; and besides these wonderful things which we have related of it, there are more virtues which the great creator has given to it. For being carried about one, it cures the cramp and gout. In the hour of travail, if held in the hand, it facilitates the birth. If bruised and taken with honey, by purging, it cures the dropsy. And being applied in the fame manner, it affords relief to wounds from poisoned iron. Being taken with the juice of fennel, it helps the splenetic, and the head being anointed with it, it cures baldness. The quantity of a dram, with the fat of a serpent, and the juice of nettles, if given to any one to carry, makes him mad, and drives him from his kindred, habitation and country. This stone also discovers adulterous wives; for if it be secretly hid in the bed under the head of the sleeping wife, if she is chaste, the husband embraces her, but if adulterous, she immediately jumps out of the bed sleeping as if forced by a horrible stink. But being carried about one, it reconciles wives to their husbands, and husbands to their wives. It takes away fears and jealousies, It makes a man gracious, persuasive, and elegant in his conversation. Again; if it be bruised to powder, and strewed over burning coals in the corners of the house, as the smoke flies upward, they who are in the house presently run away, imagining that the whole house is falling; and so terrified are they with fancies, that they fly out, leaving everything behind them; and by this artifice thieves seize on goods by the commodious flight of the owners. It is reported by some that by this stone the walls and shell of a certain temple, the floor being taken away, were upheld; within which an idol made of iron, of a thousand pounds weight, was hung suspended in the air by virtue of the loadstone. The sum of the matter is this, that if the heads and points of many needles were rubbed on this stone, only by the joining of one to the other, they might be all held up by the first suspended in the air.

Medea (now: Hematite),

Is a stone which took its name from the Invention of the witch Medea. It has a black color with golden veins, and if bruised in water, yields the taste of wine with a saffron color.

Melites or Melitites? (now: Not! Mellite, Honey stone)

Which when pounded in water, yields a sweet taste, and gives help in various disorders, as is held

by many learned men, particularly Pliny.

itre (now: Saltpeter),

It has the virtue both of dissolving and attracting. It is made out of the saltiness of the Earth where beasts and men have promiscuously mingled. It’s notorious how great its virtue is in warlike Instruments in throwing stones; for when it is kindled by fire, it rarifies, and is violently dilated, by which means it drives out the stones and whatever stops its vent. It was never found out by the ancients; modern Industry invented it. Of three things proportionally mixed, a certain composition is made, which no force can withstand; for it breaks, leads, drives, and destroys all things.

Nicolus, Sardonyx (now Onyx),

Its virtue is to render the bearer of it victorious and grateful to the people.

Onyx,

This stone represents many horrible things in sleep. He who carries it about him, stirs up quarrels and

contentions. It increases spittle in children, and hastens a birth. Being hung about the neck of one who has the epilepsy, it prevents his falling. This wonderful properties said to be in the Onyx ; that, being applied to a weak eye, it enters it of its own accord, as if it were a sensible thing, and goes round it without any trouble, and if it finds anything within that is noxious, it drives it out and tempers the hurtful and contrary humors.

Onicinus (now: Onyx),

If put upon a live coal, in the manner of incense, it gives a sweet and fragrant smell; it whitens the hands, and cures the itch.

Opalus, Opal,

Its virtue prevails against all the diseases of the eyes. It sharpens and strengthens the sight. It cannot be improper to attribute to it so many virtues, since it partakes of the nature and color of so many stones.

Obtalius, (now: Opal),

Wonderful is its virtue in preserving the eyes from various distempers. It sharpens the sight of him that carries it, but darkens those of the bystanders, so that they are not able to see. If it be wrapped in a leaf of laurel, and a charm said over it, and carried cautiously, it has a wonderful effect.

Orites, (now: Selenite),

Is a stone which we say has three species, one black of a round figure. This being bruised and mixed with oil of roses, perfectly cures the wounds, given by wild beasts, and poisonous bites, and keeps him who carries it unhurt among all sorts of wild beasts. There is another Orites which is green, sprinkled with white spots, this preserves him who carries it from adverse casualties. The third species is thin like a plate of iron, drawn with a few drops. Being hung about the neck, it differs not women to conceive, but if they are pregnant makes them miscarry.

Orphanus, (now: (white) Opal),

Is of a violet color. It is of such beauty and value, that the Roman emperors set it in their crowns. It shines in the dark. It is called Orphan, because at that time, there was only one of them found. It is highly esteemed by emperors, because it preserves their regal honors.

Ostracites (now: Fossil shells of oysters and bivalve mollusks),

Its virtue is, if given in drink, to stop bleeding. If pounded with honey, it asswages pains in the breasts.

Ophites (now: Serpentine),

Its virtue is, if hung about the neck, to allay the pains of the head, and gives relief to those who are stung with serpents. The white, we think, restores health to the lunatic and lethargic.

Okitokius?,

Physicians dissolve it in the juice of certain herbs, and make an ointment of it which has this peculiar property, that by dipping the finger in it, and touching any wood, metal, or stone, though ever so hard, it will instantly break it.   

rassius (now Prase),

It is of no small Virtue; it comforts the sight; and has all the Virtues of the Emerald though diminutively.

Panthera, Evantus (now Opal, Jaspis),

If you look on it by the rising sun, you will be successful in all your actions of that day. They say it has as many virtues as it has mixtures of other stones; for every stone gives it its own virtue.

Ponlica?,

It’s said, that by it the devil is interrogated and put to flight, and is compelled to return answers to him that asks any questions.

Pyrites, the Fire-stone (now: Pyrite),

It is said to be of great use in medicine, and particularly for distempers of the eyes as the learned hold.

Phrigius (now: Peperite),

Its virtue is styptic, and reduces proud flesh in wounds. It cures feeding and malignant ulcers, and assuages the flux of the eyes.

Punicus (now: Pumice),

Its efficacy is powerful in medicines. For being burnt, washed and dried, it is very good for the eyes. It cleanses wounds and skins over sores. It prevents drunkenness, if taken before drinking wine.

Praeconissus, (now Leucosapphire)

delights the eyes with its agreeable embellishments.

Pavonius, (now, an Agate)

is a stone, which being given in drink with a moderate sweat, forces the person who takes it into all the fire of love.

uirinus, or Quirus (now: Quirin),

Is a juggling stone, found in the nest of the Hoopoe. The virtue of it is, that if it is laid on the breast of one who is sleeping, it forces him to discover his rogueries.

adaim (now Cock stone),

Is a stone black and transparent. It is found in the head of a cock, although some say, it is found in the Head of a Sea Cat, as we before observed under the head of Doriatides. When it is cut off suddenly, and put in a place to be eat by pismires, after the flesh is consumed, it is found. It gives favor and honors to him that wears it, and is a help in governing.

Ramus, Rabri, Rami, according to some, is the same as Bolus Armenus, (now Armenian bole),

Its virtue is to resist poison, like the Bolus.

apphire (not our Sapphire but Lapis Lazuli),

It refreshes the body, and gives a good color; it checks the ardor of lust, and makes a person chaste and virtuous, and restrains too much sweat. It takes away the filth of the eyes and the pains of the head. Being drank with milk, it appeases the gripes of the belly. It renders the bearer of it peaceful, amiable, pious and devout, and confirms the soul in good works. It discovers frauds; expels terrors. It is of great service in magic arts, and is said to be of prodigious efficacy in the Works of necromancy. It discharges a carbuncle with a single touch. The eyes being touched with it, it preserves them from being injured by the small-pox.

Smaragdus or Emerald,

So delightful is their color, that there is scarce any jewel that affords a more grateful refreshment to the eyes. Many virtues are fabled of it.

Succinum or Amber,

The virtues of Amber are the fame as those of the Gagates, though more numerous and powerful.

It naturally restrains the flux of the belly is an efficacious remedy for all disorders in the throat, to prevent which the ancients made the women and children wear it in bracelets and necklaces. It is good against: poison. If laid on the left breast of a wife when she is asleep, it makes her confess all her evil deeds. Being taken inwardly, it provokes urine, brings down the menses, and facilitates a birth. It fasten teeth that are loosened; and by the smoke of it, poisonous insects art driven away. If we would discover whether a woman has been corrupted, let it be laid in water for three days, and then shown to her, and if she is guilty, it will immediately force her to make water.

Sardius or Sarda (now: Sard, Carnelian),

It binds up the Onyx, for when one is present, the other cannot hurt. It suffers no horrid dreams in sleep. It increases wealth, gives cheerfulness, whets the wit, restrains the bloody flux, and gives conquest over enemies. Some think the Sardius is the Cornelian, which is a false notion.

Sardonyx or Sardonius (now: Sard, Carnelian),

Its virtue is to put a restraint on lascivious motions, and make a man merry arid agreeable. It is the bell of any for making seals, as it does not flick to the wax.

Selenites, Sirites, Siderites (Selenite),

It is very powerful in reconciling Love; and during the whole time of the Increase of the moon, it helps the phthisis; but in the decrease, it discovers surprising effect, for it enables a person to foretell

future Events. Being put into the mouth, which must be first washed with water, such affairs are thought of, as ought or ought not to be taken in hand, If to be undertaken, they are so fixed on the mind that, they cannot be forgotten ; but if not, they soon vanish out of the mind.

Samius (now Exhebenus),

Its virtue is to cure the swimming of the Head and the loss of the understanding. But if it be taken in drink, it prevents abortion. If carried in the left hand, it stops the running of tears of aged people, and gives help in other disorders of the eyes, if bruised in milk and applied to them.

Smirillus?,

Is the file and serpent of all things, except the diamond; it consumes and corrodes all things. It is a stone of an iron color and exceeding hard; it is found in many and divers places. It is used for the cutting and plaining of stones, and the scouring of arms.

Solis Gemma (now Adularia),

It has a wonderful efficacy against any deadly poisonous draught.

Sagida or Sadida?,

It has so great an affection to cling about vessels, that it will dart itself upward from the bottom of the sea, and stick so close to a ship, that unless you cut away that part of the wood to which it adheres, it can scarcely be plucked off.

Sarcofagus (now: Alunite),

If this stone be bound to a man while he is alive, it has the force of eating away his flesh.

Siderites (now: Basalt),

Its virtue is, that if it be used in sorceries, it excites discords.

Sluxites?,

Is a stone content with a moderate beauty, but not so in its virtue, for if bruised and (lily given in meat with ragwort, it gives a prodigious stiffness to the penis; being hung about the neck, it makes a good digestion, and infuses a desire of fruition.

Samothracia (now: Obsidian),  

When they are put in fire they give a smell like pitch; the smoke of it avails in fits of the mother.

opatius or Topasion, the Topaz,

They say, that if the topaz is thrown into Water boiling hot, it quickly cools, and that by this coolness lascivious motions are quelled.  It’s a Cure for the phrensy? clenches the hemorrhoids, cures and prevents lunacy, increases riches, adages anger and sorrow, and averts sudden death; blood flowing from a wound is stopped if this be bound over it; and it makes the bearer of it obtain the favor of princes.

Turchion, or Turchesia, the Turcois (now Turquoise),

There is a vulgar opinion, that it is useful to Horsemen, and that so long as the rider has it with him, his horse will never tire him, and will preserve him unhurt from any accident. It strengthens the sight with its aspect. It is said to defend him that carries it from outward and evil casualties.

Thirsitis, is like the Coral?,

They say, if it be taken in a draught, it brings on sleep.

Talc Alchimicus?,

Is a stone, lucid, luminous, of the color of silver, and by sublimation becomes the worst of poisons.

Varach (now: Dragon’s Blood, a dried plant resin),

It has the virtue of stopping every kind of flux, instead of which physicians use dragon's blood. 

Vernix or Armenicus (now: Chalcopyrite),

Whose virtue Is said to afford help to the melancholy, the splenetic, the liver-grown, and those also who are troubled with the colic.

Vulturis, so called from the bird of its own name (now Vulture stone),

Whose head being suddenly cut off, it is found in the brain. It gives health to those who carry it. It fills a woman's breasts with milk. It gives success to those who petition for favors.

drinus, and by some called the Serpentine; (now: Enhydro),

It helps those who are troubled with rheum, and frees the human body, from too much humidity; it restores dropsically bodies to their pristine state, if they stand three hours with it in the sun, for they will evacuate a most foul water by sweat. They say it must be cautiously used, for it will extract not only the extraneous humidity, but also the natural and implanted juices. It drives away poisonous worms. If taken inwardly, it is said to break the stone in the bladder.

umemellazuli or Zemech (now Lapis Lazuli),

being prepared by physicians, it cures melancholy disorders.

Zarites?,

they say it stops bleeding if hung about the neck.

Ziazaa?,

It renders him who carries it litigious, and makes him see terrible things in his sleep.

Nico