Horses, Swine And Magical Birds: The Role Of Animals In The
Mabinogion.
Chapter One: Horses in the Mabinogion.
Perhaps the most predominant animal within the entire
Mabinogion collection is the horse, appearing in ten of the eleven tales.
Horses occur primarily as means of transportation and hunting although they
also function as an important aspect of battle where fighting on horseback
takes place.
They play a particularly significant role in the narratives
of Rhiannon and Branwen in Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi as well as in Culhwch ac
Olwen and Historia Peredur vab Efrawg. Horses can also be seen as playing an
important role in the narrative structure, particularly in Breuddwyd Rhonabwy
and at times are vividly described.
The descriptions of horses ‘suggest that the authors were
drawing on a well-established narrative technique which could be elaborated or
modified to suit particular circumstances.’ Such descriptions may include the
rider, the type of horse and varied adjectives detailing colour, size, gait and
spirit such as the ‘shiny black, wide-nostrilled, swift-moving palfrey with a
pace steady and stately, sure-footed and lively’ found in Peredur.
The relatively few descriptive passages relating to human
appearance make those of the horses particularly stand out, but what
‘particular circumstances’ inspired the authors/redactors of these medieval
tales to convey such lively descriptions of their character’s mounts? In a more
generalised context of animals in the Middle Ages, Joyce Salisbury suggests
that horses were the ‘highest-status animals’ and that animals, as a form of
property, were used to ‘enhance the status of their owners’, with colouring and
general appearance reflecting either poorly or positively upon them.
Descriptions of
horses in the Mabinogion, then, ranging from a ‘black-hoofed, high-headed’ or
‘fine black gascon horse… with a saddle of beechwood’ to a ‘lean, sweaty’ or
even ‘scraggy horse’ are perhaps meant to convey to the reader or listener
something about the status of their owners or riders.
The importance of rank and status in the Mabinogion can be
clearly discerned in the initial exchange between Pwyll and Arawn in the first
branch, the emphasis placed on which may be underscored by the difference in
the quality of their horses – Pwyll’s is not even mentioned, merely assumed,
while Arawn’s mount is described as a ‘large dapple-grey horse’ with emphasis,
perhaps, on the ‘large’ to indicate his higher rank. The idea of horses
denoting rank is made more explicit in Peredur in the marked difference between
his ‘untidy’ horse and the steeds of Arthur’s knights. Indeed, it has been
suggested that medieval literature depicts ‘the increased preoccupation with a
horse’s appearance as a sign of status’, such as in Beowulf where their
trappings become more significant than the horses themselves. Within the
Mabinogion the distinctive horse colourings and trappings in Breuddwyd Rhonabwy
and the later romances certainly distinguish their riders, suggestive of their
status and perhaps also their possible aggressiveness such as the fearsome
black knights of Owain, for a horse’s spirit is ‘often conveyed by the movement
of the animal, which in turn reflects the hero’s own temperament’. Such
attributes as ‘high-spirited, impatient’ or ‘bold-paced’ may, then, say much
about the personalities of their riders.
Colour, the ‘most striking and obvious characteristic’, is
perhaps the most significant aspect of the descriptions of the horses, for
whenever ‘horses are described in the tales, then a colour term follows almost
without fail’. This is particularly noteworthy in Chwedl Geraint ab Erbin and
Breuddwyd Rhonabwy, the latter of which describes a variety of brightly
coloured horses including red, black and white, yellow and green and
dapple-grey, often with their legs from the ‘kneecaps downwards’ being a
different colour to their bodies. Such fantastic colourings may perhaps be
explained by the fact that they are seen in a dream, although it has been
argued that the tale does present ‘an account of knights and horses with a firm
basis in reality’. It is clearly stated at the close of the tale that ‘no one
knows the dream – neither poet nor storyteller – without a book, because of the
number of colours on the horses, and the many unusual colours both on the
armour and the trappings’, indicating the importance of such colourful horses
to the structure of the tale which perhaps signify the statuses of their often
unnamed riders. The importance of horse colour is also highlighted in a Welsh
treatise on horses dating to the sixteenth century which details how ‘to choose
a horse by his colour’, listing horses by colours such as dapple-grey and white
with their appropriate corresponding characteristics.
While horse colouring may imply ‘prestige and status’,
particularly the rarer hues, in ‘some cases the colour may well have a symbolic
significance, too’. The horses of Arawn and Rhiannon in the first branch, for
example, may denote the otherworldly origins of their owners. Dapple-grey, the
colour of Arawn’s mount can be compared to the colour of horses often ridden by
fairies in both Welsh legends and later ballads and folk tales from England,
while Rhiannon’s horse is white, a colour often used as a ‘marker’ to ‘indicate
the shift between the real world and the otherworld.’ Rhiannon’s initial,
rather iconic appearance riding ‘a big, tall, pale-white horse’, suggests her
regal status and presents her as somewhat mysterious, elusive and otherworldly,
particularly as she manifests in response to Pwyll seating himself upon Gorsedd
Arberth where local superstition states that a nobleman will either be ‘wounded
or injured, or else he will see something wonderful.’ Her large horse of
otherworldly hue is central to this ‘wonderful’ appearance and her first
meeting with Pwyll, magically transporting her into his realm while
demonstrating her competent riding skills. Rhiannon and her horse present more
than just a visual wonder, however, for Pwyll’s men, try as they may, cannot
catch up with her despite the fact that anyone ‘who saw it would think that the
horse had a slow, steady pace’. Over the course of three evenings she appears
and is pursued in some detail; firstly on foot and the court’s fastest steed,
the swiftest known in the realm, then on the fastest horse of the field, yet no
matter how each horse was spurred, ‘the further she drew away’ effortlessly,
although her ‘pace was no faster than before’. Pwyll thoughtfully discerns that
‘there is some magical explanation here’, hinting at the supernatural aspect of
Rhiannon’s character as well as her horse’s gait, which may be linked to the
time distortion which often occurs in otherworldly journeys and adventures.
Finally Pwyll himself follows on his own ‘spirited, prancing horse’, thinking ‘at
the second leap or the third he would catch up with her’, yet suffers the same
defeat until he calls out for her to wait, upon which she assertively replies
‘I will wait gladly… and it would have been better for the horse if you had
asked me that a while ago!’
Horses, then, are an important catalyst in their
relationship, enabling Rhiannon to engineer their meeting in such a way that
Pwyll has to physically pursue her and even begin their first conversation
which, conducted on horseback, sets the tone for their subsequent encounters.
The horses involved in this meeting further signify the author/redactor’s
understanding of horsemanship and significantly add to the lively pace of this
memorable portion of the tale.
The equine symbolism which continues to pervade Rhiannon’s
story to an extent is also evident during her later punishment for supposed
infanticide of being forced to act like a horse, sitting by the mounting block
and offering to carry visitors to the court on her back, although ‘rarely’ does
anyone actually take up her offer. Such symbolism is further demonstrated in
the circumstances surrounding the supernatural abduction and subsequent
recovery of her new born son; he is discovered in the stable of Teyrnon whose
mare, the most handsome horse in his kingdom, foals every May eve yet her
offspring mysteriously vanish. Resolving to discover the fate of his foals,
Teyrnon’s ensuing vigil finds him battling a mysterious claw attempting to
steal the new born foal. Slicing off part of the claw he discovers not only his
foal but also a baby boy, whom he rears with his wife. The boy grows unusually
rapidly and shows such interest in the horses that he is gifted with the one
born on May eve. His true identity is then discovered and riding his own horse
he is restored to Rhiannon, so ending her punishment. Horse symbolism can also
be glimpsed in the nature of her later imprisonment in the third branch which
links her tale together.
The horse elements of Rhiannon’s tale have led commentators
such as Anwyl and Gruffydd to see parallels between Rhiannon and the Celtic
horse goddess Epona, attempting to explain some of the equine associations
inherent in her tale. However, this remains a matter of interesting conjecture
with little but speculation, however convincing, to prove such theories.
Rhiannon’s horse symbolism does work on a narrative level
nonetheless, with her magical white horse indicating not only her regal and
otherworldly status but also acting as a catalyst enabling her meeting with
Pwyll. In addition, the missing foals are a catalyst to the recovery of her son
and the nature of horses also figure in her punishments. Rhiannon herself also
acts as something of a catalyst to Pwyll, steering his impetuosity towards the
good sense his name implies, which all stems from their initial meeting on
horseback. Thus it is clear that horses play a significant role in the first
branch, acting as plot devices that enhance the narrative, adding tension, pace
and at times a supernatural element.
Magical horses can also be seen elsewhere in the Mabinogion
such as that belonging to Iddog son of Mynio in Breuddwyd Rhonabwy, which has
the curious ability to control distance with its breath: as ‘the horse breathed
out, the men moved further away from him; but as he breathed in, they came
closer to him, right to the horse’s chest’. This ability ensures that Rhonabwy
converses with Iddog and travels with him to meet Arthur and is again
indicative of magical ability and the distortion of time and distance often
associated with the Otherworld, comparable to Rhiannon’s horse.
Other potentially enchanted steeds include ‘Gwyn Myngddwn’,
meaning ‘White Dark Mane’ who is ‘as swift as a wave’ and ‘Du’ meaning
‘Black’, the acquisition of whom form
part of the impossible seeming tasks required to win the giant’s daughter in
Culhwch and allow Ysbaddaden to be slain.
The need for these miraculously swift horses also
demonstrates the fast, ferocious nature of the boar they are required to help
hunt and whilst Arthur gathers ‘every choice steed’ to assist, it is Mabon
riding Gwyn Myngddwn who manages to snatch the required razor from between the
boar’s ears; hence this swift horse also enables another task to be partially
fulfilled, helping bring the tale to its conclusion. Arthur’s own mount is
named as Llamrei, meaning ‘Grey or Swift Leaper’, interestingly a mare rather
than a warhorse although she enables four of Arthur’s injured men to be born
away from the cave of the Very Black Witch during another task, indicating her
reliable capability and suggesting her great size.
Though unnamed, horses form a central part of the narrative
of the second branch where they form a significant pivot upon which the tale
turns. Following the marriage of Matholwch and Branwen his horses are billeted
in ‘every region as far as the sea’. Upon enquiring who these horses belong to,
Efnysien learns of his sister’s marriage and is insulted at not being
consulted, although apparently present at Matholwch’s arrival. He declares ‘Is
that what they have done with such a fine maiden, and my sister at that, given
her away without my permission? They could not have insulted me more,’ he said.
Then he went for the horses, and cut their lips to the teeth, and their ears
down to their heads, and their tales to their backs; and where he could get a
grip on the eyelids, he cut them to the bone. And in that way he maimed the
horses, so that they were no good for anything. This rather startling insult to
the Irish king, particularly after his marriage to Branwen, creates a great
deal of tension within the tale which is only temporarily diffused by
Bendigeidfran distancing himself from Efnysien’s actions and offering suitable
compensation, primarily in the form of Matholwch’s kingly honour-price and new
horses, although additionally giving him a magical cauldron with regenerative
powers. The horses ‘were handed over to him, so long as there were tame horses
to give’, after which foals are taken from another area ‘called Talebolion from
then on’, attempting an onomastic explanation based on the horse theme. The
mutilation of the horses is an international folk tale motif and its use here
indicates the importance of both horses and honour, in addition to setting up
the plot for the remainder of the tale, for during Branwen’s second year of
marriage ‘there was a murmuring of dissatisfaction in Ireland because of the
insult that Matholwch had received in Wales, and the disgrace he had suffered
regarding his horses’. This leads to Branwen being punished for the matter
until she eventually sends word home and a devastating war ensues, after which
only seven men return to Britain. As high status animals horses clearly play an
integral role in the ‘unforgivable insult… promoting the catastrophic hostility
between Britain and Ireland’, demonstrating their significance to the narrative
structure.
During the third branch horses only explicitly appear at the
close of the tale where a priest rides ‘a well-equipped horse’ and Llwyd
attempts to exchange ‘seven horses’ for the thieving mouse Manawydan has
caught, so demonstrating their desirability and value.
However, their presence is repeatedly implied in relation to
saddle-making and the varied episodes of hunting. The oldest form of hunting
was with hounds and mounted hunters and certainly dogs are a recurring feature
of hunting practices in the Mabinogion, even during the enchantment of the
third branch when in theory only ‘wild animals’ remained. We can perhaps, then,
also assume the presence of horses at many of the hunts, even when not clearly
depicted. Indeed, in Breuddwyd Macsen Wledig horses are not described in the
opening hunting episode which leads to Maxen’s dream, yet the emperor’s palfrey
is mentioned on their journey home, confirming their presence. Furthermore, in
the fourth branch we are told that Gronw’s hunting party consisted of hounds,
huntsmen and ‘a band of men of foot’, suggesting that the main huntsmen were
indeed mounted riders. This particular hunt is also the catalyst for Gronw and
Blodeuedd to meet and commit adultery and attempted murder.
In the same tale Gwydion ‘conjured up twelve stallions’ with
saddles and bridles and accompanying hounds with leashes in order to convince
Pryderi to exchange his pigs. The enchantment only lasts one night, however,
resulting in a war killing many ‘men, and their horses’. After raising Lleu so
‘he could ride every horse’, Gwydion also tricks Aranrhod into arming Lleu who
was ‘pining for horses and weapons’, so illustrating the significance of
acquiring arms and a mount in the maturation of a hero which can also be
discerned in Peredur. As an integral part of warfare, ‘no one dared mention
horses’ to the young Peredur whose mother was anxious to shield him from the
dangers of battles and tournaments. Perhaps inevitably he meets some of
Arthur’s knights and aspires to become one himself, taking a pack horse and
forming a makeshift saddle and trappings in imitation of the knights,
indicative of the noble status he wishes to acquire. The immature and somewhat
ridiculous nature of his poorly-conceived new image is underlined, however,
when he enters Arthur’s hall ‘on a bony, dapple-grey nag with its untidy,
slovenly trappings’, appearing in stark contrast not only to the knights but
also to other heroes in the Mabinogion, notably Culhwch, of whom this image may
be a parody. Peredur is told his ‘horse and weapons are too untidy’ to be a
knight, again suggesting the power of status implied by great horses, but his
humble mount nonetheless marks the beginnings of his journey. Ultimately he
receives a horse, weapons and instruction from one of the witches of Caerloyw
whom he was fated to kill.
Contrasting with the image of Peredur is the elaborate
description of Culhwch, centring on ‘a steed with a gleaming grey head, four
winters old, well-jointed stride, shell-like hoofs, and a tubular gold
bridle-bit in its mouth, with a precious gold saddle’. This image of ‘the
youthful hero par excellence… is conveyed by a telling sequence of association:
horse, weapons, dogs, mantle, and foot-gear’; personal description is
superfluous as the quality and youth of the horse imply much. Furthermore his
‘steed’s four hoofs would cut out four clods, like four swallows in the air
above him, sometimes in front of him, sometimes behind him’, additionally
enhancing his vivid description. Proceeding to make a ‘brash and aggressive’
entrance at court, Culhwch rides straight into the hall rather than dismounting
first, ‘contrary to royal custom and all the canons of good behaviour’, yet
making a bold statement of which his horse is an integral part.
Horses are again indicative of status and character in
Geraint, whose horse was ‘a willow-grey colt, enormous in size… The horse was
tall and stately, swift and lively, with a short steady step’. Geraint meets
with Gwenhwyfar and one of her maidens whose presence alone in the forest is
explained by the lack of horses left in the stable after they overslept on the
morning of the stag hunt. They then encounter a dwarf riding a big, sturdy
horse, powerful, wide-nostrilled, ground-devouring, courageous, and in the
dwarf’s hand there was a whip. Near the dwarf they could see a woman on a
horse, pale-white and handsome with pace smooth and stately, and she was
dressed in a garment of brocaded silk. And close to her a knight on a great,
muddy charger, with heavy, shining armour on him and his horse. And they were
sure that they had never seen a man and horse and armour whose size impressed
them more.
This is surely among the most vivid descriptions of horses
in the Mabinogion, clearly setting out the differences between the riders and
indicating that the dwarf, controlling such a large horse, is not to be
under-estimated. The differing status of all the characters becomes further
apparent when the dwarf strikes both Gwenhwyfar’s maiden and Geraint for
attempting to speak with the knight as their ‘status is not high enough’. Once again,
this meeting on horseback becomes the catalyst for further adventures, as do
the horseback meetings of Pwyll with both Arawn and Rhiannon. There are several
other detailed horse descriptions in Geraint including ‘even-paced,
high-spirited but manageable’, often demonstrating the ‘attributes conforming
to the virtues of a good horse.’
The notion of good horses further arises in Owain where
Cynon is given a ‘dark-brown palfrey with a bright red mane on him, as red as
lichen’, so good he ‘would not exchange it for the best palfrey in the Island
of Britain’. He receives this favoured horse after his own mount is taken by a
black knight on a ‘pure black horse’, the first of many such fights on
horseback which are a recurring theme throughout this tale.
When Owain becomes the new black knight he fights all
Arthur’s retinue in turn on horseback, culminating with Gwalchmai whom he
battles for three days in fairly detailed description. Ultimately these fights
restore Owain to Arthur’s company but result in him leaving the Countess of the
Fountain. He is later berated for this by a maiden ‘on a bay horse with a curly
mane that reached the ground’, triggering the next stage of Owain’s adventures.
Horses in this tale, then, can be viewed as catalysts for change based on their
integral roles in the unfolding action, where they provide both a means of
transportation and a method of fighting, comparable to the first branch where
Pwyll both meets Rhiannon and fights Hafgan on horseback. Owain also gives us
the rather graphic image of a horse being severed in two by a portcullis,
leaving Owain trapped. This strange aspect of the tale, however, significantly
furthers the narrative by bringing about Owain’s first meeting with Luned. She
not only gives him a magic ring of invisibility enabling his escape but
continues to aid him, particularly in his pursuit of the Lady of the fountain.
Horses clearly play an integral part in the Mabinogion
tales, particularly in relation to hunting, fighting and travel, allowing both
male and female characters to move about in furtherance of their own schemes,
with female riders noted in several tales including all three romances. They
also, however, feature in other ways such as when ‘the stamping of the horses’
and other noises act as a catalyst waking the emperor Maxen from his dream of
Elen. They also provide the important means of conveying messengers to the
emperor once Elen is found in reality, the urgency of which is demonstrated by
the fact that as ‘their horses failed, they left them behind and bought new
ones’, additionally signifying the wealth of the emperor.
In Breuddwyd Rhonabwy, a tale which ‘dramatically evokes the
sense of horsemen rushing to and fro’, a mounted horse is ‘struck on its
nostrils’ as a way of stopping the rider to both reprove him for splashing
water over Arthur and to offer ‘advice’ on the matter. Finally, in Geraint's
tale he demonstrates his continued prowess by overcomes a series of mounted
knights, whereupon he gives the increasing numbers of horses to Enid to drive
in front of her as part of his efforts to test her love.
Elsewhere in medieval Welsh manuscripts horses also feature
in poetry, notably in Y Gododdin where warriors fight on horseback, Canu y
Meirch and works by the Poets of the Princes. Horses in the latter carry
messages or even the poets themselves to their loves and are a strong feature
in poems praising their patrons where they are both ‘prestigious objects’
indicative of munificence and wealth and eager warhorses symbolizing ‘their
owners’ military might’, the most esteemed qualities of which are ‘swiftness
and spiritedness’. Horses are also referred to in detail in poems requesting
them as gifts from patrons including Cistercian abbots, often specifying
‘colour or temperament or pedigree’ and they also feature strongly in
Trioedd Ynys Prydein (The Triads of the Island of Britain).
Dating in extant form from the thirteenth century onwards
yet clearly comprising fragments of earlier tradition, the triads contain a
distinct group known as Trioedd y Meirch or the triads of the horses, listing
‘the names of horses belonging to the traditional heroes’, many of which have
fabulous characteristics. Interestingly, the ‘horses’ names are all of a
descriptive nature’ and ‘most frequently give their colours’, again indicating
the importance of this characteristic as demonstrated in the Mabinogion where
horse colours recur although horse names are rare, only featuring in Culhwch in
the form of Llamrei, Gwyn Myngddwn and Du who also feature in Trioedd y
Meirch.The triad of the three bestowed horses also alludes to the pale yellow
horse of Lleu, perhaps recording an additional or variant detail of his
acquisition of arms to that seen in the fourth branch. Throughout the triads
horses are presented with a ‘status equivalent to that of their masters’,
emphasising the prestige of horses and suggesting ‘the close bond between the
warrior and his steed’.
In Irish literature horses are frequently described as ‘the
companions of warriors’ whose ‘warlike attributes and physical prowess were
often described in as much detail as their human counterparts’. Such detailed
descriptions can be seen in the Táin Bó Cuailnge, Bricriu’s Feast and The
Wooing of Etain and are comparable with descriptions in the Welsh tales. Swift
horses also feature and ‘Fantastically coloured horses are a regular feature of
the happy Celtic Otherworld’.
Irish tradition furthermore records how Macha was forced to
act like a horse (cf. Rhiannon) by racing those of the king, even though
heavily pregnant, while The Grey of Macha and The Black of Saingliu are born at
the same time as Cú Chulainn and gifted to him while still a young boy,
comparable to Pryderi and the foal. Hence the roles of horses are not
dissimilar to those in Welsh tradition.
Horses were undoubtedly significant creatures at the time
the Mabinogion tales were recorded in medieval Wales and indeed the triads
indicate ‘the honourable and important role played by the horse in all aspects
of medieval life’. Furthermore the law texts, Cyfraith Hywel, feature
references to horses ‘scattered throughout’ in varied contexts, including the
tractate on the ‘Value of Wild and Tame’ which offers ‘direct information about
different kinds of horse’. Extant poetry also indicates that ‘the wealthiest
members of Welsh society had been breeding horses for many centuries’ and
selective horse breeding in the Middle Ages not only led to increasingly
stronger and larger horses but also those with distinctive features and
characteristics, including temperament, that would enhance the status of their
owners.
Further in the Celtic past horses also ‘quite clearly, had a
very special significance’, with riding thought to have been ‘prestigious’ and
horsemen ‘people of high status’. Horses moreover played ‘a major role in
Celtic culture and religion’ and Epona, always depicted with a horse, is
thought to have been a widely revered horse goddess whose name is derived from
the Celtic word for horse. There is also ‘substantial evidence for ritual
associated with horses’ such as horse burials and horse symbolism in artwork
and iconography, including stone reliefs and bronze statues found throughout
the ancient Celtic world. In all, the ‘evidence of literature and archaeology
point to the high status accorded to horses in Celtic society’ which is
reflected to an extent in the Mabinogion.
Horses clearly play a dominant role in the Mabinogion tales.
They provide a means of transportation for the characters and their messengers,
play a significant role in hunting as well as combat and form part of crucial
meetings. They can be perceived as an integral and dynamic aspect of narrative
style and structure, helping to maintain the motion of the plot and often
having pivotal roles such as in the mutilation of the horses, a situation which
has many consequences and brings out the true natures of several characters
including Bran and Matholwch. Horses are also seen as desirable possessions,
particularly in the gift exchanges between Pwyll and Arawn in the first branch
and furthermore their descriptions in the form of appearance (notably colour),
spirit and trappings often convey something significant regarding their riders,
particularly linked to status and temperament. Indeed, ‘the horse reflects the
dual qualities of the hero himself – both his prowess and his generosity’,
especially as horses are often exchanged as gifts. Therefore the higher quality
horses may indicate far more than just higher status. The role of horses is
clearly important in these medieval tales which also hint at their deeper
significance in both medieval Welsh and ancient Celtic society.
Chapter Two: Swine in the Mabinogion
Swine are a significant feature of the Mabinogion, particularly
in Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi where they play an important role in the tales of
both Pryderi and Gwydion, but they are most predominant perhaps in the oldest
narrative of the corpus, Culhwch ac Olwen.
The main protagonist of the tale, Culhwch, is the most
closely associated character with these animals due to the nature of his birth
for his mother, Goleuddydd, lived wild during her pregnancy and gave birth in
or near a pig sty: from the hour she became pregnant she went mad, and did not
go near any dwelling. When her time came, her senses returned to her. This
happened in a place where a swineherd was tending a herd of pigs. And out of
fear of the pigs the queen gave birth. And the swineherd took the boy until he
came to court. And the boy was baptized, and was named Culhwch because he was
found in a pig-run. But the boy was of noble descent.
Hence we learn that Goleuddydd’s pregnancy with Culhwch
caused her temporary loss of sanity, resulting in her leaving the safety of the
court and living wild until the baby was born. Her fear of the swine appears to
have acted as a catalyst or inducement to her actually giving birth on the
spot, although why tended pigs should have caused her such fear is a matter of
conjecture. We are also to assume from the explanation given regarding
Culhwch’s naming that his birth was actually amongst the pigs themselves in the
sty. Sioned Davies, however, has noted that while hwch means ‘pig’; cul only
meant ‘sty’ or ‘run’ from the fourteenth century, hence the more likely interpretation
of his name at the time the tale was recorded was actually ‘slender’ or ‘lean’
pig rather than ‘pig run’, suggesting he was actually named as one of the
piglets. Nonetheless his naming, which is a crucial stage of a hero’s
development as demonstrated in the fourth branch, indicates his origins and
possibly also underlines his inherent nature, as perhaps does the fact that he
was initially reared by a swineherd. This idea has been taken a stage further
by Eric Hamp, suggesting that in the original tale ‘It is clear that Culhwch
literally was a pig’, his apparent nobility indicating an important pig at
that, while Patrick Ford has also considered Culhwch’s possible association
with Moccus, the Celtic swine god. Such ideas, however, while interesting are
inconclusive, yet it is clear from the outset that the figure of Culhwch is
closely linked with swine.
It is possible to discern a similarity in circumstances, to
a point, between the finding and rearing of both Culhwch and Pryderi, for both
are discovered with animals - Culhwch with swine and Pryderi horses - and are
initially raised and then brought to court by the animals’ owners. Indeed, it
has been observed that the ‘link between Culhwch’s birth and pigs betrays
supernatural influence similar to that of Pryderi and the foal’ and Culhwch,
like many of the characters in his tale, appears to have his own unusual
abilities which can be seen in his threat to make all the women in the land
barren should he not be admitted to Arthur’s court. From the beginning, though,
‘Culhwch’s destiny is inextricably linked with pigs’ and as well as being
connected with his birth and naming, swine are also catalysts for the main
action of the tale, moving the plot along and providing the many of the
adventures involved in his quest for Olwen, the giant’s daughter. Ysbaddaden
Bencawr sets Culhwch a series of impossible sounding tasks including hunting
wild boar, intended to get Culhwch killed in the process and therefore prevent
his union with Olwen and his own subsequent death.
However, it is the completion of a number of these tasks
with the aid of his cousin Arthur that allow the giant to be killed and Culhwch
to marry his bride. The tasks mainly revolve around preparations for the
wedding and include several animals such as varied oxen, birds and bees as well
as swine. Tasks central to the entire tale are two boar hunts, unsurprising
perhaps for a hero so linked with pigs; indeed, his intended death was perhaps
meant to be as connected to swine as his birth, and certainly swine are a
central feature at both the commencement and climax of the tale.
The first hunt is for ‘Ysgithrwyn Pen Baedd’, meaning ‘White
Tusk Chief of Boars’, whose tusk is required to shave Ysbaddaden for the
wedding and must be extracted whilst Ysgithrwyn is still alive. Nonetheless, an
axe is used to ‘split his head in two’ in order to acquire the tusk and
furthermore it ‘was not the dogs that Ysbaddaden had demanded of Culhwch that
killed the boar but Cafall, Arthur’s own dog’, indicating that the tasks are
not always accomplished in the manner dictated; indeed, the tasks are not
attempted in order and not all of them are achieved before Ysbaddaden is
overcome. Neither is Culhwch directly involved although the quests are
completed for his benefit, for, unless we are to simply assume his presence
even if he does not actively participate, he effectively drops out of the story
until the final confrontation with the giant, leaving the tasks to be achieved
by Arthur and his retinue. Such absence or inaction, however, naturally ensures
that Culhwch is not slain whilst hunting boar.
The second boar hunt, for ‘Twrch Trwyth, son of Taredd
Wledig’, is given in much more detail, with many of the remaining tasks
associated with acquiring particular hunters, horses, hounds and equipment in
order to undertake this hunt successfully. An earlier form of the boar’s name,
trwyd rather than trwyth, is ‘cognate with the Irish triath meaning ‘king’ or
‘boar’’ and indeed early Irish sources name ‘Torc Triath, king of the boars of
Ireland’, clearly a parallel figure. Furthermore, Twrch Trwyth has already
‘destroyed one-third of Ireland’ before he is found and goes on to devastate a
further fifth of the country during the hunt before moving on to Wales and
finally Cornwall in a somewhat epic chase. The real significance of his name,
however, is highlighted when we learn that he was no mere animal, but was in
fact ‘a king, and for his sins God changed him into a swine’. This, then, is no
ordinary wild boar but a human transformed into an animal as punishment, to be
hunted as a beast, although what sins warranted such a penance are left untold.
He ‘plays a leading role’ in the tale where ‘the author seems at times to feel
some pity for him, as well as awe and respect’.
Despite this king’s debasement into animal form and the
havoc and desolation he subsequently wreaks, he still honourably defends his
‘seven little pigs’. Six of these are named including Grugyn Gwrych Eraint
(Grugyn Silver-bristle), whose ‘bristles were like wings of silver, and one
could see the path he took through woods and over fields by the way his
bristles glittered’. Nowhere is Twrch Trwyth himself explicitly described, yet
the pace of the ferocious hunt is suggestive of an extremely fast and
aggressive animal and the repetition of ‘little’ in terms of his pigs implies
that the boar himself was unusually large.
The fact that Arthur ‘gathered together every warrior… every
choice hound and celebrated steed’ to assist in the arduous hunt further
demonstrates the boar’s strength and ferocity. Indeed, ‘Arthur himself fought
against him, for nine nights and nine days’, only killing a single piglet.
On two separate occasions characters transform themselves
into the likeness of a bird in order to get close to Twrch Trwyth; Menw to
determine that the treasures between the boar’s ears are actually present
before engaging him and Gwrhyr in order to parley with him. Miranda Green
suggests that Gwrhyr shape-shifts to better communicate with the boar, but this
is clearly unnecessary as we have already been told he can speak with birds and
beasts; surely it is simply a way to get close enough to Twrch Trwyth without
risking injury, underlining the dangerous nature of the boar whose bristles
appear to be laced with poison. It is Grugyn who replies ‘God has done us
enough harm by shaping us in this image, without you too coming to fight
against us’, indicating that the piglets too were transmogrified men and
reinforcing the scope of their punishment.
The hunt ‘ends virtually in a draw between Arthur and the
boar, although the carnage on both sides is great’ and many casualties are
named including the piglets, with Twrch Trwyth ultimately and ambiguously
‘driven straight into the sea’, never to return. However, ‘the purpose of
hunting the boar was not, in any case, to kill him, but to obtain the valuable
treasures from between his ears’ in the form of the comb, razor and shears
which ‘appear to symbolize his regal status’ and are eventually laboriously
snatched prior to his disappearance. These were to be procured to trim the
giant’s hair in preparation for the wedding feast, similarly to the tusk of
Ysgithrwyn for shaving. The role of both boars can thus be clearly seen as
catalysts on a narrative level, the achievement of these tasks allowing Culhwch
to win his destined bride and Ysbaddaden to be slain. The ‘well-developed’,
‘buoyant, bouncing’, ‘thrilling’ and fast-paced nature of the second boar hunt
over a wide geographical area, ‘told with verve and gusto’, also forms the
climax of the tale, providing Arthur with the opportunity to vanquish a
threatening, near-invincible animal as well as adding a moral element to the
tale.
The hunting of Twrch Trwyth by Arthur and his dog Cafall is
also referred to in the Mirabilia appended to the Historia Brittonum ,
indicating that this aspect of the tale was clearly known prior to the
recording of Culhwch ac Olwen and therefore existed independently, likely known
to its author or redactor. Additional allusions to Twrch Trwyth in Welsh poetry
also strengthen the likelihood that the tradition was known and widely
distributed in Wales from an early period. Whether or not it was originally
part of the tale of Culhwch and the giant’s daughter or was a later accretion
is unclear, but the fact remains that the hunt for Twrch Trwyth adds much to
the pace and climax of the narrative as it stands in addition to supplementing
the boar symbolism already inherent in the tale.
A further function of this boar hunt in Culhwch also appears
to be the provision of certain onomastic details, accounting for place names
such as Garth Grugyn where Grugyn was slain. It has also been suggested that
the rivers Gwys and Twrch ‘commemorate or gave rise to the tales of these
mythic boars’. Such topographical lore relating to swine can also be seen in
the fourth branch when Gwydion steals the pigs of Pryderi, the journey of which
results in the naming of several places such as Mochdref meaning ‘swine-town’.
While Pryderi’s birth is more connected with horses than
pigs, in comparison with Culhwch swine also underlie his tale, woven throughout
the four branches, although in a somewhat different manner. The narratives of
the four branches are linked in various ways, for example by recurring
characters such as Pryderi and Rhiannon, but also by the actual pigs themselves
which were a gift from the Otherworld stemming from Pwyll’s relationship with
Arawn, the King of Annwfn, in the first branch although interestingly we do not
learn of this particular gift until the fourth branch:
‘Lord,’ said Gwydion,
‘I hear that some kind of creatures that have never been in this island before
have arrived in the South.’
‘What are they called?’ said Math.
‘Hobeu, Lord.’
‘What sort of animals are they?’
‘Small animals whose flesh is better than beef. They are
small, and their name varies. They are called moch now.’
‘Who owns them?’
‘Pryderi son of Pwyll - they were sent to him from Annwfn by
Arawn, king of Annwfn.’
While this is somewhat ambiguous regarding whether it was
actually Pwyll or Pryderi who received this otherworldly gift of swine, it is
likely to have been given during the time frame of the first branch before
Pwyll’s death and Pryderi’s succession, when Pwyll and Arawn exchanged
‘whatever treasure they thought would please the other’. This clearly illustrates
the interwoven nature of the narratives of the four branches, each tale adding
to our understanding of the others.
During this fourth branch the swine become part of Gwydion’s
elaborate schemes in which he convinces Math that they should procure these
animals for themselves, although in reality it is merely in order to further
his own personal ends. He resorts to trickery and deception upon learning of
Pryderi’s agreement with his people that he ‘should not part with them until
they had bred twice their number in the land’, temporarily conjuring twelve
stallions with saddles and bridles, twelve hounds with collars and leashes and
twelve golden shields to convince them to accept an exchange for the pigs, so
beginning the ensuing war between Dyfed and Gwynedd. This results not only in
the rape of Goewin but also the death of Pryderi in honourable single combat
with Gwydion who dishonourably uses enchantment to overcome his foe. The swine,
then, act as a catalyst not only for war and Pryderi’s downfall but also for
Gwydion’s scheming and subsequent punishment for Goewin’s rape, during which he
and his brother Gilfaethwy are transformed by Math into three successive pairs
of animals and forced to couple with each other, each time producing offspring.
Interestingly, as well as deer and wolves, they are also appropriately turned
into a wild boar and sow, this being the only transformation in which Gwydion
is forced to live as the female and give birth to a piglet who is described as
being ‘big for its age’, comparable perhaps to the growth of Lleu who is raised
by Gwydion and also potentially his son, subtly indicated perhaps by the
comparable rapid nature of the growth of both his youngsters. The piglet is
transformed by Math into human form and named ‘Hychddwn Hir’, derived from
‘hwch’ meaning swine, indicating his true nature, and ‘Hir’ meaning tall.
The swine in Pryderi’s care can thus be seen as a factor not
only significantly moving the narratives forwards but also illuminating the
natures of the characters, particularly Gwydion, as well as being an integral
part of the interweaving plots of the four branches. Furthermore, it is a
magical ‘gleaming-white wild boar’ which lures Pryderi and as a result also his
mother Rhiannon to their imprisonment in the third branch at the hand of Llwyd,
acting as a pivot upon which the story turns. It is possible that the reason
Pryderi follows the boar inside the mysterious newly built fort is not merely a
rash decision not to abandon his hunting dogs as it appears upon first reading
this tale, particularly when contrasted with the prudence of his companion
Manawydan who interestingly also appears as part of the hunt for Twrch Trwyth
in Culhwch ac Olwen, but rather the desire to seize a potential opportunity to
overcome the enchantment of Dyfed and restore his kingdom and people. Indeed,
we are told at the close of the first branch that Pryderi ‘ruled the seven cantrefs
of Dyfed successfully, beloved by his realm and all those around him’, implying
that his nature was in fact far from impetuous and it is unlikely that he was
ignorant of the adventures of his father, titled ‘Pwyll Pen Annwfn’. If this
was the case then surely Pryderi would have recognised the supernatural nature
of the boar, particularly from its otherworldly colouring but also by its
actions, clearly attempting to lure them into a strange fort. This can, of
course, be further understood upon learning in the fourth branch that pigs
themselves apparently originated in the Otherworld, which again Pryderi must
have been aware of as his own swine were a gift from Arawn. Thus the presence
of the enchanted boar may serve to subtly elucidate the character of Pryderi as
well as to highlight Manawydan’s careful wisdom and Cigfa’s ensuing prudence,
in addition to providing a vehicle for Llwyd to extract revenge on behalf of
Gwawl. If this is the case it surely underlines the significance of the boar
and its narrative importance.
Swine also occur in the second branch where Matholwch’s
swineherds are the first to observe the spectacle of Bran and his retinue,
which includes Pryderi, crossing the Irish Sea. As, according to the fourth
branch, pigs were apparently a gift to man from the Otherworld, we can wonder
retrospectively where Matholwch acquired his swine, particularly as Math is
forced into war to acquire some. The second branch does, however, indicate that
Matholwch had at least one encounter with the Otherworld himself when a hunt
led him to a mound (cf. the mound of Arberth in the first and third Branches)
and an encounter with giants Llasar Llaes Gyfnewid, Cymidei Cymeinfoll and
their magical cauldron; therefore it is feasible that he also acquired his swine
from the Otherworld.
However, the weakness seemingly inherent in his character
indicates that he is unlikely to have received such an otherworldly gift.
Nonetheless, however Matholwch acquired his pigs, the swine themselves can be
clearly seen to be a thread permeating the narratives of all four branches,
particularly in the aspects of story relating to Pryderi where they clearly act
as narrative catalysts, providing both Llwyd and Gwydion with their
opportunities to plot and scheme and Manawydan and Cigfa to demonstrate their
true natures, as well as eventually resulting in the downfall of Pryderi and
being a catalyst of the appearance of Aranrhod following Goewin’s rape and the
subsequent birth of Lleu.
Ultimately at the close of Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi pigs also
assist in Gwydion’s recovery of Lleu. While searching he meets with a swineherd
whose sow repeatedly disappears: ‘Every day when the pen is opened she goes
out. No one can grab her, and no one knows where she goes, any more than if she
sank into the earth.’ Gwydion, perhaps understanding the nature of the sow
after spending a whole year in the form of one, decides to follow her ‘brisk
pace’, eventually arriving at an oak tree under which she feeds on ‘rotten
flesh and maggots’ falling from an eagle at the top of the tree. The eagle
turns out to be an emaciated, metamorphosed Lleu who Gwydion restores and cares
for but it is interesting that once again a pig features large in Gwydion’s own
story, again acting as a catalyst, this time to the recovery of Lleu.
The only mention of pigs other Mabinogion tales is in
Historia Peredur vab Efrawg, where they merely serve as a source of food in the
form of ‘chops of the flesh of sucking-pigs’. This aspect of the relationship
between humans and pigs can also be discerned in Culhwch where ‘Dillus Farfog
roasted a wild boar’.
Although swine are absent from the remaining tales, it is
clear they play a dominant role in Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi and Culhwch ac
Olwen, the latter of which preserves an additional fragment of swine lore
relating to ‘Ôl son of Olwydd – seven years before he was born his father’s
pigs were stolen, and when he grew to be a man he traced the pigs and brought
them home in seven herds’. Elsewhere in Welsh literature Trioedd Ynys Prydein
preserve more detail regarding Pryderi who appears as one of the three powerful
swineherds. A later version of this triad informs us that Pryderi’s pigs were
the seven animals which Pwyll Lord of Annwfn brought, and gave them to Pendaran
Dyfed his foster-father. And the place where he used to keep them was in Glyn
Cuch in Emlyn. And this is why he was called a Powerful Swineherd: because no
one was able either to deceive or force him confirming that it was indeed Pwyll
who first brought the swine from Annwfn and also giving us their original
number.
Pendaran Dyfed is Pryderi’s foster father in the first
branch but his connection to the swine is unknown outside this triad. In the
fourth branch Pryderi does of course fall prey to deception which also
contradicts the version of the tale recorded here, but nonetheless its
inclusion in the triads further reinforces the importance of the tale and the
significance of the swine, as well as hinting at the power of the swineherd.
Indeed, the tending of pigs by swineherds is a recurring theme, mirroring the
fact that ‘pigs had their swine-herds’ in medieval Wales.
The same triad further details the exploits of a pregnant
sow whose name, Henwen, ‘Old White’, is perhaps indicative of her magical
nature. She leads her swineherd, Coll son of Collfrewy, from Cornwall to
various places in Wales, interestingly ‘reversing the itinerary of the Twrch
Trwyth’, where she delivers a bee, grain of barley, wolf cub, young eagle,
grains of wheat and a kitten who grows into the monstrous Palug’s cat. In the
later version Arthur and his men attempt to destroy her due to a prophecy she
would bring disruption to the island of Britain, again attesting the importance
of swine in Celtic tradition.
Episodes involving following a pig also ‘recur frequently in
Celtic Saints’ Lives in which the saint is directed to follow a (white) boar or
sow who will lead him to a suitable building site for his church’, further
highlighting the supernatural aspects of pigs and their literary roles as
catalysts.
Other swine in Welsh literature include the companion of
Myrddin during his wild sojourn in the forest as demonstrated in the poems
Hoinau and Yr Afallennau where the pig is directly addressed, seemingly
indicating just how far he is removed from civilisation, although once a
warrior and person of note. This is comparable, perhaps, with Culhwch’s mother,
Goleuddydd, also living wild as a result of madness although from pregnancy
rather than battle. Pigs, however, do not become her companions but rather her
personified fears and the catalyst for her giving birth.
Similarly to medieval Welsh literature, ‘Irish tradition is
rich in legends of magic destructive pigs and legendary boars’ including Torc
Triath, the pigs of Cruachan and the six swine of Derbrenn who were also
transformed men, one of which is named Caelchéis, possibly cognate with
Culhwch. In particular ‘Pig-hunting appears in many early Irish tales,
especially of the Fianna’, such as the hunts for the boars of Formael and Ben
Gulban, the latter famously leading to the death of Diarmaid. Indeed, ‘Fenian
warriors are constantly portrayed as hunting not only powerful boars, but
tremendous, transformed otherworld animals, whose purpose seems to be to lead
the heroes to some otherworld abode’, a porcine role also glimpsed within the
Mabinogion. Irish tradition moreover ‘attributes the introduction of pigs to
Ireland to the gods, the Tuatha Dé Danann’, comparable to their otherworldly
origins in Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi, and pigs also occur in place names. The power
of the swineherd is also suggested and indeed the two prized bulls fought over
in the Táin Bó Cuailnge began life as swineherds before undergoing several
metamorphoses. There is, then, an abundance of Irish lore surrounding swine,
much of which is comparable to the role of pigs in Welsh tradition, including
the fact that ‘Shape-shifting often involved pigs, and magico-divine pigs were
involved in ritual hunts where the invincibility of the beast was stressed’.
Finally, pigs also appear in Irish literature as self-regenerating beasts
providing endless food for the feast, the champion’s portion of which was often
fought over.
Other examples of medieval literary swine include a vivid
boar hunt in Gawain and the Green Knight and it has been noted that the ‘boar
remained a powerful figure in medieval imagination, feared and respected. It
represented power, invincibility, and fearlessness and appeared in literature
marking these qualities’. This can clearly be seen within the Mabinogion,
particularly in Culhwch where the dangerous nature of the hunts are stressed.
Pigs can also ‘be seen to represent an extraordinarily valuable asset for the
Celts of Welsh literature’ with the tales demonstrating not only their
importance in medieval Wales but also their deeper significance in the ancient
Celtic past. Indeed, the ‘boar is, without doubt, the cult animal par
excellence of the Celts’, with evidence of possible boar deities such as
Arduinna and Moccus and symbolic appearances on helmet crests, the Gundestrup
cauldron, coins, carnyxes and other artwork and iconography including bronze
statues. Quite often boars were depicted with exaggerated bristles as a sign of
fierceness and it appears they ‘possessed prominent and dual symbolism in the
Celtic world. They were adopted as images of war, because of their ferocity and
indomitability; and they were symbols of prosperity, because pork was a
favourite Celtic food and played an important part in feasting.’
Classical writers such as Strabo commented on the Celts’
love of pork and pig bones occur as grave goods, associated perhaps with the
Otherworldly feast. Wild boar was hunted by the early Celts yet was not ‘a
major constituent part of the Celtic diet’, suggesting it was more for sporting
or ritual purposes, particularly as evidence ‘for domestic pigs is very
abundant, but boar bones are rare.’ This archaeological evidence serves to
demonstrate the significance of swine to the ancient Celts, clearly still seen
in medieval Celtic literature where they often play a central role.
Real and enchanted swine, including metamorphosed humans,
play significant roles in the Mabinogion where they can form a bridge between
the real and the supernatural. They can be perceived as objects of the hunt; as
leaders into adventure for good or ill; as opportunities for characters such as
Gwydion and Ysbaddden to forward their own schemes; and as catalysts for
character growth and development, including their role in the punishments of
Gwydion, Gilfaethwy and the son of Taredd Wledig where they also provide a
moralistic element. They are furthermore an integral and dynamic aspect of
narrative structure, acting as pivots and plot devices to keep the story
engaging and forward-moving. In the case of Pedeir Keinc y Mabinogi they also
help bind the tales together, adding to the overall understanding of the reader
or listener. Such is the role of swine as they appear in these important
medieval narratives, which additionally highlight the deeper significance of
pigs, particularly the boar, not only for medieval Welsh society but also for
its more ancient Celtic past.
Chapter Three: Magical Birds and Other Enchanted Beasts
Birds of varied types are a fairly common feature in the
Mabinogion tales. They appear both in real form where they act as messengers
and hunting aides as well as in their more predominant guise of magical
creatures with varied supernatural abilities, whereby they play a variety of
helpful roles. Human characters also appear in the form of birds, particularly
in the fourth branch and Culhwch ac Olwen, their transformations at times
voluntary, at others involuntary and for a number of different reasons. Indeed,
such episodes of metamorphosis can be seen as a regular feature of the oldest
tales in the collection, not just in bird but also in animal form, although
often as a result of punishment for transgression rather than for shamanistic
purposes. Such shape-shifted creatures at times play a central role such as in
the boar hunts of Culhwch ac Olwen and other enchanted animals also occur, at
times luring hunters into otherworldly adventure for good or ill and often
unusually coloured and unnaturally swift.
The main occurrences of real birds can be found in the
second and fourth branches. During Branwen’s three-year punishment in the
second branch she resourcefully trains a starling to assist in alerting her
brother to her plight: Branwen reared a starling at the end of her
kneading-trough, and taught it to speak, and told the bird what kind of man her
brother was. And she brought a letter telling of her punishment and dishonor.
The letter was tied to the base of the bird’s wings, and it was sent to Wales. It proceeded to seek out Bendigeidfran where
it ‘alighted on his shoulder, and ruffled its feathers until the letter was
discovered and they realized that the bird had been reared among people.’ It is
interesting that the starling is taught to speak yet does not do so in the
narrative but instead is given a letter to carry, presumably so Bendigeidfran
would not doubt the authenticity of the information. Clearly the starling acts
as a messenger and the communication it carries leads to a devastating war,
hence the bird can be seen to play a pivotal role upon which the narrative
turns.
In the fourth branch a bird is instrumental in the naming of
one of the central characters. Having refused to name or have contact with her
illegitimate son, Aranrhod is tricked into doing so by a disguised Gwydion. In
the process ‘a wren lands on the deck of the ship. The boy aims at it and hits
it in the leg, between the tendon and the bone’, whereupon the skilled nature
of the shot is remarked upon by Aranrhod, ‘it is with a skilful hand that the
fair-haired one has hit it’, inadvertently naming her son Lleu Llaw Gyffes,
meaning ‘the fair one with the skilful hand’. Thus the wren acts as a catalyst
to the naming of the hero whilst illustrating his skilled marksmanship,
comparable with Medyr son of Medredydd in Culhwch who can shoot a wren through
both legs from a great distance.
Also found in this collection of tales are hunting hawks
which feature in the first branch along with hounds and horses in the gift
exchanges between Pwyll and Arawn. This is indicative of the desirability of
such birds of prey which were ‘very important in medieval Welsh society’ and
moreover suggests their role in maintaining good relationships by the
exchanging of often valuable gifts, possession of which in turn may signify the
wealth, status and generosity of the characters. The desirability of such birds
can also be glimpsed in Geraint where a sparrowhawk is the prize of a jousting
tournament thereby also signifying prowess, although the hawk itself is forgotten
once Geraint has triumphed. Nonetheless the winning of the sparrowhawk not only
allows the completion Geraint’s quest to avenge the insult to Gwenhwyfar, but
also leads to his marriage to Enid; hence it clearly moves the story along. In
Peredur a wild hawk kills a duck resulting in a black raven consuming its red
blood in the white snow, the contrasting chthonic colors of which cause Peredur
to remember the woman he loves best, comparable to the tale of Deirdre in Irish
tradition. Elsewhere in the Mabinogion birds are used to enhance the
descriptions of characters - Olwen is compared to hawks, falcons and swans, a
squire in Rhonabwy is described as having ‘hawk-like eyes’ and Gwalchmai’s name
can be interpreted as the ‘hawk of May’, all in turn further underlining the
esteemed qualities of such birds. Indeed, even the peacock-feathered arrows in
Owain serve to enhance the image of wealth and status described in the tale.
More commonly found within the Mabinogion, however, are
magical birds, perhaps the most memorable of which are the singing birds of
Rhiannon. In the second branch they sing to the survivors of the war in Ireland
during their seven year feast at Harlech, where as soon as they began to eat
and drink, three birds came and began to sing them a song, and all the songs
they had heard before were harsh compared to that one. They had to gaze far out
over the sea to catch sight of the birds, yet their song was as clear as if the
birds were there with them.
Clearly possessing magical powers, these three birds most
likely have their origin in the Otherworld, with which ‘Birdsong is often
associated’. Indeed, they further confirm the otherworldly status of Rhiannon
to whom they are said to belong, help link the narratives of the first three
branches and appear to be connected to the distortion of time and distance
regularly associated with the Otherworld, also seen in the gait of Rhiannon’s
horse. Their melodious song is also preternatural, not just because it can be
clearly heard from so far away but also due to its gentle, soothing nature,
further explained in Culhwch ac Olwen as having the power to ‘wake the dead and
lull the living to sleep’. It seems clear, then, that the main role of these
birds is to soothe the survivors after all they have been through, particularly
after the loss of both Bendigeidfran and Branwen, whereas in Culhwch they
function as one of the difficult tasks which must be undertaken in order for
the hero to win the hand of the giant’s daughter. Ysbaddaden requests the birds
to entertain him on the wedding night where, should the tasks be completed, he
will be slain, suggesting perhaps that the birds are required either to lull
his enemies, soothe his passing or even revive him, according to the properties
he states they possess. Interestingly, this task is not explicitly achieved in
the tale which does nonetheless culminate in the death of the giant; possibly
we must simply assume all the tasks are completed, or perhaps the birds are not
acquired either due to the difficulty in locating them or because of their
potential effect on Ysbaddaden.
Similar birds can also be found in Owain, again to whose
song no other can be compared: ‘a flock of birds will alight on the tree, and
you have never heard in your own country such singing as theirs’. The
difference in country perhaps denotes the Otherworld and indeed they appear as
part of a supernatural adventure of which their song evidently signals the next
challenge, for just when at its most enjoyable, a fearsome black knight appears
and a difficult fight ensues. The description of the singing is repeated four
times in the tale, stressing the significance of both the magical flock and
their song. Indeed, we additionally hear Cynon’s opinion ‘that never before nor
since have I heard singing like that’, that their song was ‘most pleasing’ to
Owain and finally that Cai, Arthur and his retinue ‘had never heard a song as
delightful as the one the birds sang’. While such birds are clearly akin to
those of Rhiannon, the term ‘flock’, of course, suggests more than three birds.
In Irish tradition parallel creatures appear as Clídona’s three colourful birds
whose song also has the ability to heal and comfort.
A further flock of birds can be discerned in Breuddwyd
Rhonabwy in the form of Owain’s ravens. During his game of gwyddbwyll with
Arthur he refers to his warriors as his ‘little ravens’ and each move made in
the game appears to signal actual combat between their respective retinues,
with Owain’s ravens initially suffering badly at the hands of Arthur’s men
until given respite where the ravens flew up into the sky angrily,
passionately, and ecstatically, to let wind into their wings and to throw off
their fatigue. When they regained their strength and power, with anger and joy
they swooped down together on the men. Arthur’s troops then suffer in turn,
leading to ‘a great commotion in the sky with the fluttering of the jubilant
ravens and their croaking’. It is clear from these detailed descriptions that
the warriors fighting on Owain’s behalf are actual birds who, despite their
initial oppression, turn out to be skilled fighters, achieving significant
battle victory for Owain, despite the fact that it is apparently a game. At the
end of the second game Owain finally calls off his ravens whereupon Arthur
crushes the golden game pieces to dust, so signalling his dispirited defeat.
While the triumphant warriors in the central portion of this tale are literally
ravens, at the close of Owain his people are referred to as both the ‘Three
Hundred Swords’ and ‘the Flight of Ravens’, perhaps indicating that his ravens
were usually perceived as men, although the first term could of course refer to
his human troops while the latter may signify the actual ravens under his
command. Interestingly the ‘association of Owain with ravens seems to have a
long history in Welsh tradition’ and is ‘frequently mentioned in Welsh poetry’
in which raven ‘is a common metaphor for warrior’; while in Irish tradition
ravens were often associated with war goddesses. Elsewhere in the Mabinogion it
can be discerned that Bendigeidfran’s name means blessed crow or raven, perhaps
denoting his warrior status.
Other magical birds found in these tales include the
ouzel/blackbird, owl and eagle who, along with the stag and salmon, appear as
the oldest living animals in Culhwch ac Olwen, all leading unnaturally long
lives and therefore possessing knowledge and memory unsurpassed. Each
demonstrates its long lifespan and we learn that the eagle has ‘wandered most’
and as a result encountered the oldest creature, the salmon, to whom he leads
Arthur’s men. Variant versions of this tale can be found within both Welsh and
Irish tradition. However, it can be
clearly seen that all five animals, including the three birds, assist in the
task of finding and freeing the lost prisoner, Mabon, so aiding not only
Arthur’s men in their quest, but also Culhwch in the winning of Olwen.
Other birds appearing in the Mabinogion are actually
metamorphosed humans. In Culhwch Menw and Gwrhyr voluntarily and by their own
means shape-shift into unspecified birds in order to get closer to Twrch
Trwyth. In the fourth branch an instinctual transformation occurs when Lleu,
seriously wounded by a poisoned spear, shape-shifts into an eagle, enabling him
to flee and save himself. Indeed, he ‘flew up in the form of an eagle and gave
a horrible scream, and he was not seen again’ until a sow leads Gwydion to his
location, whereupon Lleu requires his magical assistance in order to transform
back into human shape. Gwydion further transmogrifies the unfaithful Blodeuedd
into an owl as a means of punishment, declaring that because of the shame you
have brought upon Lleu Llaw Gyffes, you will never dare show your face in
daylight for fear of all the birds. And all the birds will be hostile towards
you. And it shall be in their nature to strike you and molest you wherever they
find you. This is a fate worse, in Gwydion’s opinion, than death and implies
that owls are persecuted by other birds as a result of Blodeuedd’s treachery.
Such bird-forms, then, can be seen to enable reconnaissance, communication,
preservation of life and punishment for adultery and conspiracy to murder.
Shape-shifting to bird and other animal forms is a
significant and recurring feature of the earliest Mabinogion narratives,
particularly in Culhwch ac Olwen where it is so pervasive it implies a probable
‘ancient belief in animal transformations’. This can also be glimpsed in extant
Celtic images of human figures depicted with animal characteristics such as the
antlered figure on the Gundestrup cauldron, possibly a depiction of Cernunnos,
the horned one, although many such images are ambiguous. Joyce Salisbury
suggests that medieval interest in such transformations is indicated by the
‘growing popularity of metamorphosis literature’ from the twelfth century
onwards, where human to animal transformations reveal the ‘increasing blurring
of lines between humans and animals’ and perhaps a belief that boundaries were
more fluid. Certainly boundaries between humans and animals are far from rigid
in the Mabinogion where such transformations are at times voluntary, the
required animal or bird form desired for specific reasons. Involuntary
transformations, however, are more common, often occurring as a form of
punishment where such transmogrification appears to be a degradation, perhaps
‘making a visible transformation that expressed the state of the human’s animal
side’. Nonetheless, as Miranda Green points out, usually ‘only their physical
form is altered; they retain the ability to think as humans’ although deprived
of their human status. There are few true shape-shifters in the Mabinogion who
are able to transform at will, with many of the metamorphoses caused either by
a magician or God, the latter ascription possibly occurring as a result of
redaction by monastic scribes.
Metamorphosed creatures other than birds in the Mabinogion
include the ‘huge army of mice’ who appear in the third branch to devastate
Manawydan’s crops, heralded by a loud noise signalling their enchanted nature.
We subsequently learn this army is comprised of Llwyd’s retinue, who voluntarily
requested transformation by their master to further his scheme of revenge, even
joined ultimately by the women of the court and Llwyd’s pregnant wife who is
caught by Manawydan. Treating the captured mouse as a human thief, Manawydan
proceeds to put her on trial for her crimes which, while seeming bizarre to the
modern reader, was in keeping with medieval society where animals were actually
prosecuted for committing harm to humans and their property ‘with the same
serious concern for legal points as trials of humans’. In this case, however,
the mice are transmogrified humans who clearly further the revenge theme and
additionally bring the third branch to its conclusion, where the enchantment of
Dyfed is lifted and Llwyd restores his wife to human form using his wand.
It is involuntary transformations, however, which form the
majority of such metamorphoses within the Mabinogion. We have already seen in
the preceding chapter how various characters in Culhwch ac Olwen are
transformed into swine for their undisclosed sins, a theme paralleled in Irish
tradition. The same narrative also features Nynniaw and Pebiaw who ‘God
transformed into oxen for their sins’, as well as the bitch Rhymhi who was in
‘the form of a she-wolf’, although her original shape is unspecified. These
creatures all feature as part of the task list Culhwch must complete in order
to marry Olwen, thus playing their roles in bringing about the narrative
conclusion. The transmogrifications resulting from transgressions within this
tale are all caused by God who additionally changes Rhymhi and her two whelps
‘back into their own shape for Arthur’.
In the fourth branch, however, similar transmogrifications
are carried out by magicians. As punishment for inciting war in order to commit
rape, Gwydion and Gilfaethwy are struck with Math’s magic wand and transformed
into successive pairs of animals – a hind and stag, a wild boar
and sow and a male and female wolf. This demonstrates Math’s magical ability
which appears greater than Gwydion’s and seems focussed on the power of his
wand which is repeatedly stressed in the tale. The brothers are forced to live
as each pair of animals for a year: ‘Since you are in league with each other, I
will make you live together and mate with each other, and take on the nature of
the wild animals whose shape you are in; and when they have offspring, so shall
you’. Their subsequent offspring are transformed into human shape by Math,
again using his wand, and baptised with names denoting their animal origins.
Other scenes linking humans and animals include the badger
in the bag episode in the first branch where Gwawl is literally treated as a
badger when caught in Rhiannon’s magic bag and beaten by Pwyll’s men. Despite
being referred to as a badger during the incident, however, it is nowhere
stated that he was actually turned into one; nonetheless, it serves to punish
Gwawl for duping Pwyll and allows Pwyll and Rhiannon to finally marry.
A further interesting sequence involving animals occurs in
Owain where the gigantic keeper of the forest has the power and authority to
summon ‘remarkable’ wild animals ‘as numerous as the stars in the sky’,
including ‘serpents and lions and vipers’. This otherworldly figure proceeds to
point the respective heroes on their way as their adventures take them further
from their familiar world. A disconsolate Owain later wanders in desolate
regions ‘until all his clothes disintegrated… and long hair grew all over him;
and he would keep company with the wild animals’, comparable to Chrétien de Troyes’
Yvain and the Scottish Lailoken as well as Myrddin and the Irish Suibhne.
Here we have examples of humans becoming animal-like through
reactions to personal crises rather than magical transformations, as a form of
self-punishment perhaps. Such wild men of the woods were popular figures in
medieval art and romances, often serving as a ‘foil for chivalrous, civilized
knights’.
Elsewhere in early Welsh literature the tale of Gwion Bach
describes a full sequence of animal transformations - following his drink from
Cerridwen’s cauldron he instinctively shifts shape into varied animals and
birds in order to flee. During their elaborate chase Cerridwen also shifts
forms, including into a greyhound and hawk and the episode results in Gwion
being reborn as Taliesin. Additionally Gerald of Wales also refers to people
changing into animals such as pigs and in Ymddiddan Arthur a’r Eryr, Arthur’s
deceased nephew Eliwlad takes the form of an eagle in order to converse with
him, although as Anne Ross notes, this appears to be a ‘soul in bird form
rather than a clear-cut metamorphosis’. Irish tradition also shows ‘frequent
examples of shape shifting’, particularly into swan form, with figures such as
the Morrigán, Fintan mac Bóchra and Tuan mac Cairill metamorphosing into many
different forms while the Children of Lir and Étain are transmogrified as a
result of jealousy.
Other enchanted animals in the Mabinogion include the
knowledgeable stag and salmon appearing as part of the aforementioned oldest
animals and the varied boars and stags hunted by the protagonists of the tales
who are often separated from their companions and led into chthonic adventures
as a result, a theme which also occurs in Irish literature, notably in the
tales of Fionn. In Geraint his adventures begin during the hunt for the white
stag and in Peredur the hero’s dogs kill a stag ‘in a deserted place’ which
leads the hero to a dwelling and the next stage of his adventures. Later in
this tale a strange stag with supernatural abilities appears who is ‘as swift
as the swiftest bird, and there is one horn in his forehead, as long as a
spear-shaft, and as sharp as the sharpest thing’. Acting as an oppressor, this
stag devastates the forest and its creatures and daily drinks the fishpond dry,
resulting in no man entering the forest. Peredur, however, slays the stag who
is then described as ‘the most beautiful jewel in my land’ by a female rider
who sends Peredur on a further quest. The appearance of stags in the
Mabinogion, then, can be seen to herald new adventures and indeed it is a stag
hunt which results in Gronw’s pivotal meeting in the fourth branch with
Blodeuedd, an enchanted woman conjured from flowers.
Such stags are likely to be of otherworldly origin,
indicated by their often white colour as well as the fact that they lead the
heroes into new places and adventures. Rhiannon’s white horse may represent the
otherworldliness of both horse and rider, as well as the enchanted nature of
the white boar which frightens Pryderi’s dogs and lures him to his imprisonment.
In the first branch, however, while the hunt results in Pwyll separating from
his men, allowing for his solo adventure, it is not the color of the stag that
is significant but rather the color of the unknown hounds chasing it. Indeed,
he simply ‘looked at the color of the pack, without bothering to look at the
stag’, indicating the significance of the hounds who were ‘a gleaming shining
white, and their ears were red. And as the whiteness of the dogs shone so did
the redness of their ears’. As white animals with red ears are particularly and
‘exclusively associated with the otherworld’ in both Welsh and Irish
literature, these dogs are clearly otherworldly and indeed signal the arrival
of Arawn, triggering Pwyll’s ensuing adventure which has lasting consequences.
Interestingly connections have been made between Arawn’s hounds and those known
in Welsh folklore as the Cŵn Annwfn, sometimes cited as being white with red
ears.
Other significant, potentially enchanted hounds can be found
in Culhwch where Aned and Aethlem are ‘as swift as a gust of wind’ and always
triumphant when hunting. The unusually large size of Arthur’s ‘favourite’ hound
Cafall is suggested by his name, derived from ‘horse’, and is comparable
perhaps to Custennin’s ‘shaggy mastiff… bigger than a nine-year-old stallion’.
Cafall, also features in the earlier Historia Brittonum and
as well as figuring in the hunt for Twrch Trwyth, he also plays a significant
role in a stag hunt in Geraint where he is faster than the other hounds. In
addition to dogs, the magical swiftness of several horses such as those ridden
by Rhiannon, Iddog and Mabon and further enchanted horses and greyhounds appear
in the fourth branch where they are conjured by Gwydion in order to trick
Pryderi into releasing his swine.
Other strange chthonic creatures also figure in Peredur
where he vanquishes a fearsome lake monster in addition to the ‘Black Serpent
of the Cairn’ who guards a magical stone, both leading to further adventures.
He furthermore observes two marvellous flocks of sheep separated by a river,
one white and the other black, who change color as they cross over, signalling
an otherworldly environment.
A final animal-related incident in the Mabinogion which
merits attention is found in Breuddwyd Rhonabwy where a yellow ox-skin with
magical properties acts as a catalyst for Rhonabwy’s dream, thus setting up the
entire tale which recounts this vision in detail. Apparently ‘good luck would
befall’ whoever lay on the skin and doing so endows Rhonabwy with his visionary
dream, for ‘as soon as sleep entered his eyes he was granted a vision’. At the
close of the tale we learn he had ‘slept for three nights and three days’,
reinforcing the magical nature of the animal skin upon which he dreamt. Such a
theme is also found in Irish tradition where poets/seers ‘were said to lie on
the hides of bulls to acquire hidden knowledge’ often via a prophetic dream,
also seen in the ritual of tarbfeis, meaning ‘bull-sleep’, used to determine a
king’s successor. In Rhonabwy, however, the skin acts as a device enabling
Rhonabwy to gain a vision of the past rather than of the future.
It is clear that magical birds and other enchanted beasts
who often ‘possess qualities beyond… natural limits’ are significant features
of the Mabinogion, as are human to animal metamorphoses. Birds in particular
can be seen as hunting companions, messengers, helpers and as aspects of
naming, healing and punishment as well as gifts signifying status and promoting
good relationships. Clearly important in ancient Celtic society where
iconography and ‘coins frequently depict bird motifs’, their power of flight
may have contributed to their more symbolic significance. Other enchanted and
metamorphosed animals, most prevalent in the earliest tales in the collection,
act as a means of swift transportation, as aspects of revenge and punishment
and as leaders into otherworldly adventure via the hunt. It is difficult to
imagine the tales without these magical creatures to enhance them.
Susan F. Garlick, Master of Arts in Celtic Studies,
University of Wales, Trinity St David, Lampeter,
Full article: Here.
