Gaelic Folklore (27): The Celtic Religion of Gaul During the Iron Age

 

The Celtic Religion of Gaul During the Iron Age

 Though the religion of the Celtic people existed across the continent of Europe it was far from being unified during the Iron Age. Like most ancient religious systems it was based on local cults rather than a universal doctrine, still, there are similarities that present clear connections to a single underlying structure. Being that the ancient Celts neglected to document their rituals and beliefs it is up to other disciplinary means to bring this religion back to life.

 The written material concerning the religion of Gaul is dominated by ancient Graeco-Roman literature and thereby subject to bias. Studying additional methods like archaeology, linguistics, insular Celtic literature, and place-name references can further unveil their beliefs, yet what is known still remains minimal at best. By compiling these various sources this paper seeks to offer a brief insight into the Gaulish religion during the Iron Age, roughly spanning from the ninth century to the end of the first century B.C. In an effort to understand the religion of these people it seems best to examine their beliefs, deities, and aspects of worship.

 1. Beliefs

Although there is not a recorded origin myth for the ancient Celts it is Julius Caesar who provided an insight worthy of note—he stated that the Gauls claimed to be descended from the god of the underworld. This implies that the Celts worshipped their distant ancestors as deities, being that they were descended rather than created. Examining insular literature such as The Book of the Invasions, (Irish, Lebor Gabála Érenn), further confirms that the Celtic tradition was to consider their gods as their ancestors. This could explain why many of the Gaulish deities are depicted as humans, typically with animalistic features, during the Iron Age.

 The Gauls entrusted much of their religious beliefs to the Druids. It is Caesar again who first mentioned them, though it is likely his source came from a Greek named Poseidonios who lived in the second century B.C. Caesar noted, “The druids are involved in matters of religion. They manage public and private sacrifices and interpret religious customs and ceremonies.” The Druids were involved in all religious affairs, however, they did not exclusively perform priestly functions. There is literary implication that other classes partook in religious practices, such as the gutuatri, (speakers to the gods), and the Vates, whom Pliny said were interpreters of sacrifice. It is certainly possible that all these distinct groups mentioned by classical sources could simply be sub-divisions of the Druidic class. Principally speaking, the Druids were the predominant authority within the Gaulish ideology/religion.

 Classical literature towards the end of the Iron Age indicates the Celts of Gaul held the belief that the soul was immortal. The Graeco-Roman writers also made it known that this was the doctrine taught by the Druids in Gaul. Diodorus Siculus, a Greek writer who lived during the first century B.C, commented: “We are told, at the funerals of their dead some cast letters upon the pyre which they have written to their deceased kinsman, as if the dead would be able to read these letters.” Again, this belief remained persistent in later insular literature, particularly throughout the recorded Irish myths.

 In addition to the belief in an immortal soul, there is strong evidence that the Celts considered the soul to reside in the head. There are multiple passages by classical writers, notably Diodorus and Livy, which illustrate Celtic warriors decapitating heads of their slain enemies so that they may “retain and control” their power. Once more there is indication in later Celtic literature reaffirming this concept, once such case being the Welsh myth Mabinogi. Collections of skulls have been found in rivers considered sacred to the Celtic people in various locations, presumably as votive offerings. Their belief of the soul lying in the head could explain why human skulls were presumably venerated with such a high degree and at times used as religious offerings.

 It seems evident that the Gauls, as well as the Celts at large, held the belief in life after death. When commenting on the Gaulish afterlife classical sources often refer to what is called the ‘Otherworld’—the world of the dead. The rhetoric seems to imply that when death occurred in one world, birth took place in the other. This makes sense of Caesar stating that Gallic funerals were “full of pomp and splendor,” because an exchange of souls between both worlds was being celebrated. It is interesting to note that insular Celtic literature maintained the existence of the Otherworld. It is traditionally depicted as a mirror-image of this world, though with pleasing exceptions like lack of sickness and aging. Iron Age Celtic graves in Gaul contained stockpiles of worldly goods which were seemingly used in the Otherworld. A burial site at Vix in westcentral France contained a heap of funerary goods for a Celtic woman who lived during the early fifth century B.C. In the grave was a large bronze vessel, gold neck ring, bronze bowls, and many other precious items which make it tempting to recognize a belief in life after death.

 Balance is an essential doctrine of the Celts. Caesar observes, “For they believe that unless one human life is offered for another the power and presence of the immortal gods cannot be propitiated.” This theme of balance is further justified in their belief of an Otherworld, in juxtaposition to this world. The sun and the moon potentially served as another cosmological example backing this ideology. It seems that the Celtic people believed in a mirror-like universe in almost every aspect, which produced divine balance.

 2. Deities

Through classical scholars, place-names references, and Iron Age religious inscriptions it is without doubt that the Iron Age Celts of Gaul were polytheistic. There are over 300 names of Celtic deities mentioned throughout the continent alone, the overwhelming majority being mentioned only once. This probably means that the Celtic pantheon was filled with local gods and goddesses specific to each tribe. However, it is also apparent that certain deities were universally worshipped throughout Gaul.

Often times the deities of the Celtic pantheon were represented accompanied by animals in their religious art. From inscriptions, it is commonly known that their divinities could also be identified with places or features—mountains, streams, rivers, lakes, and tribes. From their Iron Age symbols and images in art, it can be determined that animals were sacred, but not necessarily deities. This is potential evidence that their religion had roots in animism, hence the sanctity of nature and semi-zoomorphic depictions. 

 The deity which appears to have been the most renowned in Gaul was the god called Lugus, Lugh in later Irish myths. Caesar mentioned that the Gauls mostly worshipped the Roman god Mercury, who was thought to have been Lugus by several contemporary scholars. Caesar described him as being the inventor of all the arts, he additionally was the director of paths and journeys. In Irish mythology, he proclaimed himself a smith, warrior, poet, physician, and a sorcerer, (fundamentally, the perfect guy). He certainly was seen as being connected with the arts; amid a great feast he played the harp so eloquently everyone suddenly began to weep. Inscriptions, as well as monuments dedicated to Lugus during the Iron Age, are more abundant than any other Celtic deity. Numerous place-names also indicate the importance that this god once had throughout Gaul: Lyons, Léon, Loudan, and Laon are all cities which are etymologically connected to this deity.

 Another well-known deity of the Gaulish pantheon was Cernunnos, “the horned one.” He was typically represented as having deer antlers with a ram-headed serpent at his side, giving him the title “Lord of the Animals.” Some scholars equate this deity with The Dagda of Irish mythology, though this remains only a theory. His figure is portrayed on the Gundestrup Cauldron, dating back to the second century B.C.24 The manner in which Cernunnos is sitting on the cauldron, similar to that of the Buddha, is thought to represent how the people of Gaul typically sat during this period. Ultimately, the zoomorphic association of Cernunnos demonstrates that animals and nature played a pivotal role in the Gaulish religion, that much is understood.

 Epona, whose name means “divine horse”, was the Gaulish horse goddess. She was seen as both a fertility goddess as well as a war goddess, depending on the type of invocation. Like Cernunnos, this goddess was often given zoomorphic characteristics. There are inscriptions in Latin which date back to the first century B.C referring to animal sacrifices conducted in her honor. Epona’s influence even reached into the Italian peninsula at one point. Gaul’s superior cavalry eventually enticed Rome to adopt Epona into their pantheon.

 The whole of Gaul had various deities that could be identified with each other or performed similar functions. This is evident in recognizing divinities commonly associated with the sun. It seems that the people of Gaul linked the sun with the capacity to heal, this is evident in the names Grannos, Belenos, and Maponos. Grannos, a name that denotes the sun, was seen as the deity connected with thermal springs in both Britain and the continent. Belenos, whose name comes to mean “the shining one”, was a god of health, healing springs, and possibly fire. Both Belenos and Grannos were often names served as epithets with the Roman Apollo, god of the sun and healing, meaning the Romans saw direct resemblance between these deities.

Lastly, the god Maponos, whose name denotes “youth”, was worshipped in Gaul, Britain, and even Dacia. Youth correlated with strength to the ancient Gauls, indirectly connecting it to health and thus the sun.

 Deities that were commonly associated with war have shown to be more tribal than universal. Several examples are found throughout Gaul, including Teutates and Camulos. It was the Roman poet Lucan who first mentioned Teutates around the first century A.D. The root wood of the name, teuta, denoted a tribe or people. This is why he was thought to have been a wargod, or rather, the defender of the ribe/people. His name was also used with the Roman Mars, god of war, in later epithets.

 Another epithet used with Mars by the Romans was Camulos. This deity was well-known, his name is found in votive inscriptions and place-names across the sphere of the Celts. In later Irish mythology, he was thought to have been Cumal, whose name meant “warrior” or “champion”, hence supporting the likelihood of him being a war-divinity.

 The Iron Age deities affiliated with rivers and springs were female for the most part. Two such river goddesses celebrated by the Gauls were Sequana and Matrona. The river Seine in northern France derives its name from the ancient goddess Sequana. Graves and votive offerings found at the source of the river date back to as early as the sixth century B.C.35 The river goddess Matrona is thought to have been the ancient protector of the Marne River in eastern France. Caesar, in his campaigns against the Gauls during the first century B.C, even refered to this river as being called the Matrona. It is indicative from images found depicting these goddesses that they were connected to fertility, probably because these rivers helped to ensure survival for the people of Gaul.

 Deities related to fertility were also predominantly female and in many instances worshipped in triune form. Gaulish fertility goddesses known as the Matres, meaning “Divine Mothers”, were associated with the Earth. They were seen as protectors of women, houses, regions, or anything else in general. Images of the Matres were frequently depicted as a triad, carrying symbols of fertility such as flowers or an infant.  They appear later in recorded insular mythology in altered forms, including the Three Fairies and the Three White Ladies. The number three was an undeniably sacred number to the Celts all over Europe.

 There are, of course, many other notable deities recognized in Gaul which do not fit into these groupings. Ogmios, later Ogma in Ireland, may have been connected to speech and/or language during the Iron Age. Sucellos, whose name likely denotes “he who strikes with power”, was a deity often depicted with a hammer in his hand. Taranis, meaning “thunderer”, was equated with the Roman Jupiter and therefore a Celtic god of the sky/thunder. Finally, a goddess found in Gaul who was equated with Roman Minerva was Belisama, who was at times syndicated with healing springs.

 3. Aspects of Worship

—Places of Worship

The availability of classical sources and archaeology suggest that bodies of water, groves, and temples served as religious sanctuaries for the Iron Age Celts of Gaul. Bodies of water typically included lakes, wells, springs, and rivers, while groves presumably entailed tall trees.

 Classical sources hardly admitted that the Celts were capable of constructing temples, yet recent excavations in France prove they were not only capable but quite proficient. Lakes, wells, springs, and rivers were believed by the Celts to have healing powers, hence why they became sites of worship. Strabo’s comments regarding extensive treasures found in sacred lakes of the Celts are substantiated by archaeology. Excavations have uncovered masses of votive material which the Gauls placed in these bodies of water as sacrifice. One example involves Lake Neuchâtel, where over 3,000 metal objects have been uncovered dating between the third and first centuries. Another example is the source of the Seine River in eastern France, where the goddess Sequana was given an abundance of offerings during the latter half of the Iron Age. These votive offerings found at various bodies of water indicate that rituals were performed by a religious official, perhaps even a Druid.

 Pliny, Lucan, and Tacitus all made reference to oak-groves being places of worship for the Celts. The Gaulish place-name Nemeton denoted the site of a sacred grove, as is evident in words like Drunemeton (Oak Grove). Lucan described the groves of Gaul as possessing tree trunks which were carved to form the images of their gods, which meant that groves were potentially occupied by certain deities. Caesar noted during his conquest of Gaul, “At a certain time of the year they (the druids) sit in judgment in a sacred spot in the territory of the Carnutes, in an area right in the middle of Gaul.” There are theories that this religious hub of Gaul may have been located in a sacred grove, though it remains a supposition.

 Pre-Roman Celtic temples were discovered to exist in Gaul during the latter half of the 20th century. Two such sites, Gournay-sur-Aronde and Ribemont-sur-Ancre, date back to the 3rd century B.C. Both contained inner sanctuaries as well as scores of war trophies like helmets, shields, spears, and even human skulls. The two sites additionally presented evidence of ritualistic animal sacrifice. Presumably, these sacrifices were offerings for the tribal god of war, being that the shrines were within an Iron Age fort (oppidum). Caesar’s observation regarding the Gallic practice of pledging all spoils of battle to the war-god in one location attests to this thinking. Other Gallic temples are found in Mirebeau and Acy-Romace, further confirming that the Celts worshipped in enclosed sanctuaries during this period.

—Religious Ceremonies

Caesar made it known that Druids were given authority over the religious ceremonies for the people of Gaul. Pliny’s comment concerning a  ceremony conducted in Gaul supports this: “ The Druids - that is what they call their magicians - hold nothing more sacred than mistletoe and a tree on which it is growing, provided it is Valonia Oak….Mistletoe is rare and when found, it is gathered with great ceremony, and particularly on the sixth day of the moon….Hailing the moon in a native word that means “healing all things”, they prepare a ritual sacrifice and banquet beneath a tree and bring up two white bulls, whose horns are bound for the first time on this occasion. A priest arrayed in white vestments climbs the tree and with a golden sickle cuts down the mistletoe, which is caught in a white cloak.” Here Pliny exhibited the importance of the lunar cycle to the Gauls. Caesar, too, touched on this aspect, saying the night came first and was followed by the day rather than the reverse.

 The importance of religious ceremonies and the lunar cycle was also found in the Coligny Calendar, found in eastern France. Though dated towards the end of the Iron Age, astronomers have calculated that the calendar must have originally been computed around 1100 B.C. The Gaulish inscription on the bronze tablet covered a duration of five lunar years, which included cosmological elements as well as periods appropriate for certain rituals and events. These religious ceremonies had to be accurate so that they may appease the gods, since matters like the harvest likely depended on it. This explains the precision of the lunar calculations found throughout the calendar.

 The Coligny Calendar additionally refers to bi-annual ceremonies that marked the end of summer and the end of winter. “Samon” is inscribed on the tablet to mean the end of summer and effectively the beginning of the year. There is strong evidence that this is the same seasonal festival as the Irish “Samhain”, indicating it may have been celebrated throughout the Celtic world. Both ceremonies were held at the start of November and show signs of being interconnected with the Otherworld. The end of winter was given the name “Giamon”, and presumably a ceremony heralding the onset of spring was administered for this occasion. The Gaulish Calendar also indicates a festival occurring at the beginning of August, potentially being associated with the harvest. During this period the Council of the Gauls were said to congregate at a certain location. The Roman Emperor Augustus relocated this site to Lyons in 12 B.C, then proceeded to declared himself as the god Lugus. This attempt by Augustus to unify Gaul and Rome signified that the August festival was traditionally presided over by Lugus during the Iron Age. This aggregate celebration was later sustained in Ireland and was also coupled with the god Lugh.

—Offerings

Caesar understood that the Gallic people were well-versed in religious practice. One practice they occasionally carried out was the dedication of offerings to the gods, essentially the sacrifice of wealth. A Gaulish torc found in northeastern France bears an inscription stating it was a gift to the gods. Another privately dedicated offering found in western Gaul comprised a gold torc alongside more than 500 Celtic coins. Individual acts of worship vindicate that the Gauls likely were religious people, as Caesar insinuated.

 The Gauls typically dedicated their spoils from war as offerings to the gods. Caesar remarks, “When they have decided to engage in battle it is to Mars that they will dedicate most of what they may take in the fight.” This statement is supported by the pre-Roman sanctuaries discussed earlier, which housed the scores of war and gifts committed to divinities. Additionally, part of the war trophies found at Gournay were human skulls, which were probably nailed to the entry gate. Skulls have been found belonging to other Gaulish sanctuaries, a few being Roquepartuse, Nages, and Entremont. This does not necessarily stipulate that they were “headhunters”, as classical sources sometimes postulated. More-likely they decapitated the head from the body after death then put it to use as a votive offering.

 The deposition of material goods in bodies of water was probably the most common form of offering to the ancient Gauls. Lakes, rivers, wells, and springs throughout Gaul contain a plethora of offerings dating to the Iron Age. These votive offerings typically comprised of carved wood, but plaques of metal are also found at times. The Gauls held the belief that water had curative powers. Therefore, it seems reasonable to conclude these offerings were given in the hopes that a physical or emotional sickness may be cured.

 —Sacrifices

The religion of pre-Roman Gaul irrefutably included sacrifice in its tenets. Animal sacrifice was repeatedly practiced all over religious sites of Gaul, as is attested by classical literature as well as archaeological finds. Human sacrifice is a different story, however. Classical authors, notably Caesar and Strabo, directly painted the Celts as practitioners of human sacrifice, yet archaeology is less resolute in endorsing this viewpoint. There is an ongoing debate between scholars whether human religious sacrifice persisted in Gaul. At the heart of the dialogue are bodies recovered from bogs in northern Europe during the Iron Age, or rather the interpretation of these bodies.

 Animal sacrifice was a familiar occurrence all over Gaul during the Iron Age. Caesar referenced this, saying they would vow to sacrifice animals captured during war-time. As previously discussed, animal remains were found in ditches at the Celtic temple in Gournay, France, which contained slash marks from metal weaponry. Animals commonly sacrificed included cows, sheep, pigs, horses, dogs, and oxen—virtually all domesticated species. These ceremonial sacrifices look to be ritual rather than habitual, occurring primarily during times involving trouble.

Classical authors tended to associate the practice of human sacrifice with the identity of the Gauls, (and the Celts in general). Caesar and Strabo, both likely using Poseidonios as their source, wrote that immolation was a form of sacrifice for both animals and humans in Gaul. Lucan, too, described the Gauls lighting humans on fire to please the god Taranis. However, if this practice of human sacrifice did exist in Gaul, it is likely it died out by the end of the Iron Age. Pomponius Mela, a Roman Geographer of the 1st century A.D, stated that this tradition had long ended before his time. Moreover, there was no mention of human sacrifice in the later Celtic literature of Ireland.

Bailey Pope, full article here