2.
The Magic of Plants in Medieval Times.
On plants and
their magical properties.
From: ”The Book of Secrets of Albertus Magnus; of the
Virtues of Herbs, Stones and certain Beasts, also a book of the Marvels of the
World.” (Printed in the late 13th century, this text is from an
early 16th century English translation with notes from present day
scholars)
The first
herb is called with the men of Chaldea, Elias, with the Greeks, Matuchiol, with
the Latins, Heliotropium, with Englishmen, Marigold, whose interpretation is of
helios, that is the Sun, and tropos, that is alteration, or change, because it is
turned according to the Sun. The virtue of this herb is marvelous: for if it be
gathered, the Sun being in the sign Leo, In August, and be wrapped in the leaf
of a Laurel, or Bay tree, and a Wolf's tooth be added thereto, no man shall be
able to have a word to speak against the bearer thereof, but words of peace.
And if anything be stolen, if the bearer of the things before named lay them
under his head in the night, he shall see the thief, and all his conditions.
And moreover, if the aforesaid be put in any church where women be which have broken
matrimony on their part, they shall never be able to go forth of the church,
except it be put away. And this last point hath been proved, and is very true.
(The supposed Aramaic and Greek names
of these plants seem to be entirely fictitious. Heliatropium eurapaeum was held
by herbalists to be under the dominion of the sun; Leo is the sign of the
zodiac associated with the sun. The bay
tree is Laurus nobilis a culinary rather than a medicinal herb. Perhaps Prunus
laurocerasus, the cherry laurel, whose leaves yield prussic acid on bruising,
is meant here, and wolf’ s tooth might refer to Aconitum lapellum, a poisonous
herb sometimes called “wolfs bane", as both these plants were associated
with the witch cult in medieval times. )
ettle.
The second
herb is called of the men of Chaldea Roybra, of the Greeks Olieribus, of the
Latins or Frenchmen Urtica, of Englishmen a Nettle. He that holdeth this herb
in his hand, with an herb called Milfoil, or Yarrow, or Nosebleed, is sure from
all fear and fantasy, or vision. And if it be put with the juice of Houseleek,
and the bearer's hand be anointed with it, and the residue be put in water; if
he enter in the water where fishes be, they will gather together to his hands,
and also ad piscellum, And if his hand be drawn forth, they will leap again to
their own places, where they were before.
(Urtica dioica is the common stinging
nettle, but probably U. pilulifera, the so-called Roman nettle, a vigorous
annual plant formerly widely cultivated in herb gardens, is intended here.
Achillea millefalium, most commonly called yarrow, is still officinal in
Central Europe as a tonic and stimulant. 'Nosebleed' is a local name in several
parts of England. paralleled by the French saigne-nez. The magic of the
houseleek, Sempervivum tectorum, is correlated with its manner of growth on
roofs without any soil, and its evergreen habit. There is no reason to believe
that any of these plants is attractive to fish, and why fish should come ad
piscellum ('to the little fish') is obscure, though it may be a reference to
the phallus.)
ild Teasel ('shepherd'
s rod').
The third
herb is named of the Chaldees Lorumboror, of the Greeks Allamor, of the Latins
Virga pastoris, of Englishmen Wild Teasel. Take this herb, and temper it with
the juice of mandrake, and give it to a Bitch, or to another beast, and it shall
be great with a young one in the own kind, and shall bring forth the birth in
the own kind; of the which young one, if the gum tooth be taken and dipped in
meat or drink, every one that shall drink there of shall begin anon battle. And
when thou would put it away give to him the juice of Valerian and peace shall
be anon among them, as before.
( The heads (teasels) of Dipsacus
fullonum, the plant called here virga pastoris ('shepherd' s rod'), are used
for raising the nap on some kinds of woollen cloth. Mandragora officinalis
(mandrake) was valued for its bizarrely branching rootstocks which frequently
resemble manikins, and were thought to scream when taken from the ground.
Together with many other properties, mandrake was thought to increase fertility.
and to be an aphrodisiac; taken with the hint in the Latin name for teasel
(virga.literally'3 twig', acquired the meaning in late Latin of ‘phallus'),
this may explain the belief in the potency of the mixture. 'In the own kind'
means 'in the same species'. Valerian (Valeriana officinalis) was said by Culpeper
( 1669) to be used as a mild narcotic.)
The fourth
herb is named Aquilaris, of Chaldees, because it springeth in the time in which
the Eagles build their nests. It is named of Greeks Valis, of Latins
Chelidonium, and of Englishmen Celandine. This herb springeth in the time in which
the Swallows, and also the Eagles, make their nests. If any man shall have this
herb, with the heart of a Mole, he shall overcome all his enemies, and all matters
In suit, and shall put away all debate. And if the before named herb be put
upon the head of a sick man, if he should die, he shall sing anon with a loud
voice, if not, he shall weep.
(Chelidonium majus is the celandine or
swallow-wort; Pliny (xxv. 50. 90) says it 'blossoms when the swallow arrives
and withers when it departs’ .)
The fifth
herb is named of the Chaldees lterisi, of the Greeks Vorax, of the Latins
Proventalis, or Pervinca, of Englishmen Periwinkle. When it is beaten unto
powder with worms of the earth wrapped about it, and with an herb called Semperviva,
in English Houseleek, it induceth love between man and wife, if it be used in
their meats. And if it shall be put to the mouth of the beast, called the
Bugle, he shall break anon in the middle. And this was proved of late time. If
the said confection be put in the fire, it shall be turned anon unto blue
colour.
(Culpeper mentions two kinds of
periwinkle; he is ~referring to the two most commonly cultivated species, Vinca
minor and V. major. They are, he says, owned by Venus, and 'the leaves eaten by
man and wife together cause love between them'; like the houseleek they are
evergreen. In the north of England houseleek is sometimes called 'bullock's
eye'; the 'beast called the Bugle' is a wild ox. The statement in the last
sentence may have been suggested by the bright blue colour of the Rowers of
periwinkle.)
alamint (pennyroyal)
The sixth
herb is named of the Chaldees Bieith, of the Greeks Retus, of the Latins
Nepeta, of Englishmen Calamint, otherwise Pennyroyal. Take this herb and mix it
with the stone found in the nest of the bird called a Lapwing, or Black Plover,
and rub the belly of any beast, and it shall be with birth, and it shall have a
young one, very black in the own kind. And If It be put to their nostrils, they
shall fall to the ground anon as dead, but a little space after they shall be
healed. Also If the aforesaid confection be put in a vessel of Bees, the Bees wIll
never flee away, but they shall gather together there. And if the Bees be drowned
and like as they were dead, If they be put In the afore, said confection, they
shall recover their life after a little time, as by the space of one hour, for
it is proportioned to the quality lost. And for a sure proof, if drowned Flies be
put In warm ashes, they will recover their life after a little space.
(Nepeta cataria, catmint, and Mentha
pulegium, pennyroyal are both according to Culpeper, 'under the dominion of
Venus', Turner regards them as kinds of calamint, but Culpeper says Calamint is
'under the dominion of Mercury', Probably Mentha pulegium, which was regarded
virtually as a panacea until long after the end of the Middle Ages and was
officinal in the British Pharmacopoeia as late as 1867, is the plant intended. )
The seventh
herb is named of the Chaldees Algeil, of the Greeks Orum, of the Latins Lingua
canis, of Englishmen Hound's-tongue. Put thou this herb with the heart of a
young Frog and her matrix, and put them where thou wIll, and after a little
time all the dogs of the whole town shall be gathered together. And if thou
shalt have the a forenamed herb under thy foremost toe, all the dogs shall keep
silence, and shall not have power to bark. And if thou shalt put the aforesaid
thing in the neck of any Dog, so that he may not touch it with his mouth, he
shall be turned always around about like a turning wheel, until he fall unto
the ground as dead. And this hath been proved in our time.
(The leaves of Cynoglossum officinale. hound's
tongue. contain acetamide giving the plant a strong smell of mice. or as Gerard
(1597) thought of dog’ s urine. The 'matrix' is the uterus; here It probably
means belly . Culpeper quotes Mizaldus (Antoine Mizauld. Alexikepus. seu auxiliaris
hortus",1565): 'The leaves laid under the feet, will keep 'he dogs from
barking a' you.
enbane
The eighth
herb is named of Chaldees Mansesa, of the Greeks Ventosin, of the Latins Jusquiamus,
of Englishmen Henbane. Take thou this herb, and mix it with Realgar and Hermadatalis,
and put them in the meat of a mad Dog, and he will die anon. And if thou shalt
put the juice of it with the aforesaid things in a silver cup, it shall be
broken very small. And if thou shalt mix the aforesaid thing with the blood of
a young Hare and keep it in the skin of an Hare, all the Hares will be gathered
there until it be removed.
(Hyoscyamus niger (henbane) was
according to Turner 'named of the apothecaries Jusquiamus.The plant yields the
narcotic hyoscine (used by Crippen to bring about the death of his wife).
Realgar is arsenic disulphide, a poisonous
red mineral of widespread occurrence. Hermodactylus tuberosus (snake's head iris- referring to the
curious purple and green Rowers) is a Mediterranean plant closely related to
the iris. The name Hermodactylus has also been applied to Colchicum, the ‘autumn
crocuses', although they are much more closely related to lilies than to
crocuses. C. autumnale (meadow saffron. Naked ladies) yields the drug
colchicine. of value in the treatment of gout, and is highly poisonous. The
Stockholm Medical MS. (c. 1400) gives a recipe for bringing about a miraculous
assembly of hares, involving 'jaws of
henbane in a hare's skin'; the fruit of henbane was thought to resemble a jaw
with molar teeth, and by the 'doctrine of signatures' to be a cure for
toothache.)
The ninth
herb is named of the Chaldees Ango, of the Greeks Amala, of the Latins Lilium,
of the Englishmen a Lily. If thou wilt gather this herb, the Sun being in the
sign of the Lion, and wilt mix it with the juice of the Laurel, or Bay tree,
and after, ward thou shalt put that juice under the dung of cattle a certain
time, it shall be turned into worms, of the which, if powder be made, and be
put about the neck of any man, or in his clothes, he shall never sleep, nor
shall not be able to sleep until it be put away. And if thou shalt put the
aforesaid thing under the dung of cattle, and wilt anoint any man with the worms
breeding thereof, he shall be brought anon unto a fever. And if the aforesaid
thing be put in any vessel where there is Cow's milk, and be covered with the
skin of any Cow of one colour, all the Kine shall lose their milk.
( Lilium candidum, the madonna lily,
has been in cultivation since Roman times, but has never been regarded as
officinal. Possibly Convallaria majalis, lily of the valley, is intended here;
extracts of the Rowers of this plant have long been used as heart stimulants. The frequent references in this work to the
breeding of worms under the dung of cattle appear to be a magical extension of
the belief that worms were spontaneously generated from corrupting matter
(belief in some form of spontaneous generation was not finally abandoned until
the time of Pasteur). The qualities of the herb, mineral, or beast thus 'converted' to worms are taken to be intensified
by the process. The heat of dung was certainly used in alchemy; Charles Estienne
(The Countrie Forme, I6I6, p. 457) gives one example as pan of the technique
for distilling the blood of a goat: 'Take the blood of a young male goat let it
stand and settle for some time, and then cast out the water that shall swim
above: after, with a tenth or twelfth part of salt, stir it well a long time,
and work them together very thoroughly; this done, put it up into a vessel well
stopped and luted [sealed], and bury it in a dunghill of horse dung for the
space of forty days. Afterward distil it oftentimes .. . and yet it will be better
if it be set in horse dung forty days more after that it is distilled.')
The tenth
herb is called of the Chaldees Luperax, of the Greeks Esifena, .of the Latins
Viscum querci, of Englishmen Mistletoe. And It growerh in trees, being holed
through. This herb with a certain other
herb, which is named Martagon, that is Silphium, or Laserpitium as It is
written in the Almain language, openeth all locks. And if the aforesaid things,
being put together, be put in the mouth of any man, if he think of anything, if
it should happen, it is set on his heart, if not, it leapeth back from his
heart. If the aforesaid thing be hanged up to a tree with the wing of a swallow,
there the birds shall be gathered together within the space of five miles. And
this last was proved in my time.
(The magic of Viscum album, mistletoe,
is correlated with its evergreen and parasitic habit, in wInter it is seen to
flourish when its host is leafless and dormant, as though dead. Turner called
the orchid Listera ovata (twayblade ) Martagon; Linnaeus applied the name to
Lilium martagon. Turk's cap lily. Laserpitium according to Turner, was masterwort
(Peucedanum Ostruthium) He says the leaves are unto parsley, the plant was
thought to be an antidote to poisons, and has laxative properties; as Gerard
says it is a great opener, which may
explain the reference to locks.
The eleventh
herb is named of the Chaldees Isiphilon, of the Greeks Orgelon, of the Latins
Centaurea, of Englishmen Centaury. Witches say that this herb hath a marvellous
virtue, for if it bejoined with the blood of a female Lapwing, or Black Plover,
and be put with oil in a lamp, all they that compass it about shall believe
themselves to be witches, so that one shall believe of another that his head is
in heaven and his feet in the earth. And if the aforesaid thing be put in the
fire when the stars shine it shall appear that the stars run one against
another, and fight. And if the aforesaid plaster be put to the nostrils of any
man, he shall flee away sharply, through fear that he shall have. And this hath
been proved.
(Century is centaurium erythrea. a
pink rower of pastures named by Hippocrates for Chiron the Centaur, who had
wide knowledge of herbs; it is a bitter-tasting plant. thought to have tonic
properties and to be good against bleeding and fevers. Centaurea cyanus is a
blue-flowered weed of cultivation (cornflower). Here the smoke of the burning
herb is apparently thought to have hallucinogenic properties.)
age
The twelfth
herb is named of the Chaldees Colorio, or Coloticon, of the Greeks Clamor, of
the Latins commonly Salvia, of Englishmen Sage. This herb, being putrefied
under dung of cattle in a glassen vessel, bringeth forth a certain worm, or
bird having a tail after the fashion of that bird called a Black Mack or Ousel,
with whose blood, if any man be touched on the breast, he shall lose his sense
or feeling the space of fifteen days and more. And if the aforesaid Serpent be
burned, and the ashes of it put in the fire, anon shall there be a rainbow, with
an horrible thunder. And if the aforesaid ashes be put in a lamp, and be
kindled, it shall appear that all the house is full of Serpents, and this hath
been proved of men of late time.
(Sage (Salvia officinalit) is thought
of now a, a culinary herb, but the Elizabethans, taking a hint from the name,
found medicinal uses for it:“In Latin,
Salvia, rakes the name of safety, In English, Sage, is rather wise than crafty:
Sith then the name betokens wise and saving. We count it nature's friend, and
worth the having”. (from The English Doctor, 1609. sig. B.6, a translation by
Sir John Harington of the Regimen Sanitatis Salerni). Culpeper thought that it
was 'of excellent use, help the memory, warming and quickening the senses'. It
was said by Pliny to cure snakebite.
ervain
The
thirteenth herb is named of the Chaldees Olphanas, of the Greeks
Hiliorion, of the Latins Verbena, of the Englishmen Vervain. This herb (as
Witches say) gathered, the Sun being in the sign of the Ram, and put with grain
or corn of Peony of one year old, healeth them that be sick of the falling
sickness. And if it be put in a fat ground, after eight weeks worms shall be
engendered, which, if they shall touch any man, he shall die anon. And if the
aforesaid thing be put in a Dove house or a Culver house, all the Doves or
Culvers shall be gathered together there. And if the powder of them be put in
the sun , it shall appear that the sun is blue. If the powder be put in a place
where men dwell, or lie between two lovers, anon there is made strife or malice
between them.
(Vervain is Verbena officinaIis. Its
Welsh name is llysiau'r budol (herb of enchantement and according to the
Stockholm Medical MS (AD 1400) ‘is
powerful against the devil of hell; the 'falling sickness' (epilepsy) was often
thought to be the result of possession by devils. Peony is Paeonia officinalis.
a name derived from Paeon, physician to the gods of Olympus. A 'fat ground’ is
fertile soil.)
alm
The
fourteenth herb is named of the Chaldees Celayos, of the Greeks Casini, of the
Latins Melissophyllum, of Englishmen Smallage; of the which herb Macer Floridus
maketh mention. This herb, gathered green, and casten with the juice of the Cypress
tree of one year, put in gruel, maketh the gruel to appear full of worms, and
maketh the bearer to be gentle and gracious, and to vanquish his adversaries.
And if the aforesaid herb be bounden to an Ox's neck, he will follow thee
whithersoever thou wilt go.
(Melissophyllum is a name used by Pliny
and Virgil, meaning 'bee plant' ;it was applied by Linnaeus to Melittis
melissophyllum , an aromatic herb known as 'bastard balm 'to distinguish it
from the related plant Melissa officinalis (balm), which maybe the herb
intended here. Aemilius Macer wrote on plants in the first century B.C. , and a
herbalist whose real name was probably Odo took the pseudonym 'Macer Floridus'
in about the tenth century; the writer referred to here is probably the
medieval herbalist, though he does not in fact report these properties of melissophyIIum.
'Smallage', according to Turner, is Apium graveolens (wild celery). A more
plausible way of making food appear full of worms is suggested by Jean Baptista
Porta: ' If you cut Harp-strings small, and strew them on hot flesh, the heat
will twist them, and they will move like worms' (Natural Magic, trans. 1658,
reprinted New York, 1957; p. 327).)
The fifteenth
herb is named of the Chaldees Glerisa, of the Greeks lsaphinus, of the Latins
Rosa, of Englishmen a Rose. And it is an herb whose flower is very well known.
Take the grain or corn of it, and the corn of Mustard seed and the foot of a
Weasel; hang up these in a tree, and it will not bear fruit after. And if the
aforesaid thing be put about a net, fishes will gather together there. And if
Magaris shall be dead and be put the aforesaid commixion half a day, it shall
recover the life, allthough it be not forthwith yet gotten. And if the
aforesaid powder be put in a lamp, and after be kindled, all men shall appear
black as the devil. And if the aforesaid powder be mixed with oil of the olive
tree and with quick Brimstone, and the house anointed with it, the sun shining,
it shall appear inflamed.
(The rose has been in cultivation
since Roman times, but has never been regarded as officinal. The properties
attributed to it are not consistent, as it is credited with the power both of
inducing sterility and of restoring life. Magaris has not been identified,
though it may be a reference to pearls (margaritae), which can lose 'life' or
lustre. Olive oil and powdered sulphur ('quick brimstone') are inflammable;
this recipe, and the one following, are clearly from the Book of Fires as are
those recipes in the Marvels of the World (see p. 97) which deal with supposed
hallucinogens absorbed through their smoke (' put in a lamp') .
erpentina
The sixteenth
herb is called of the Chaldees Carturlin, of the Greeks Pentaphyllon, of the Latins
Serpentina, in English Snake's-grass. This herb is well enough known with us.
This herb put in the ground, with the leaf of the Three-leaved Grass,
engendereth red and green Serpents, of which if powder be made, and be put in a
burning lamp, there shall appear abundance of Serpents. And if it be put under
the head of any man, from thenceforth he shall not dream of himself
(Fritillaria meleagris, chequered lily, is
called snake's head and five leaved grass. Snake's grass is another name for
Achillea milllifolium and pentaphyllon is properly Potentilia reptans,. Cinquefoil.
Three-leaved grass is clover (Trifolium sp.); Pliny (XXl . 88. 1j2) says that
serpents will not venture into clover.)
”The Book of Secrets of Albertus Magnus; of the Virtues of Herbs, Stones
and certain Beasts, also a book of the Marvels of the World.” (Printed in the
late 13th century, this text is from an early 16th century English translation
with notes from present day scholars.)
Nico
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